Pohon ZAITUN dan Bukit Zaitun

Daftar Isi: PEDOMAN: Pohon Zaitun ; HAAG: Zaitun, Pohon Zaitun ; GLOSARI AYT: Bukit Zaitun ; BROWNING: ZAITUN , ZAITUN, GUNUNG, ATAU BUKIT ; ENSIKLOPEDIA: ZAITUN , ZAITUN, BUKIT ; LAMBANG: Zaitun ; YUNANI: 1636 ελαια elaia ; 1638 ελαιων elaion ; STATISTIK: ZAITUN ; LAIN: PETA ; Dalam Versi-Versi Alkitab ; Zaitun Zaitun: pohon yang sangat disukai di Palestina, tngginya kira-kira 30 kaki dan buahnya seperti buah kismis. Selalu mengghijau, dahan dan daunnya melambangkan perdamaian semesta. Kej 8:11; Ula 6:11. (Kamus Gering) Ke atas Pohon Zaitun [Kamus Pedoman] 1. Sering kali tumbuh di hutan. Rom 11:17 2. Dipelihara: 2.1 Di dalam kebun. 1Sam 8:14; Neh 5:11 2.2 Dari antara batu-batu. Ul 32:13 2.3 Di lereng bukit. Mat 21:1 3. Sangat banyak di negeri Kanaan. Ul 6:11; 8:8 4. Sangat banyak di negeri Asyur. 2Raj 18:32 5. Raja-raja Israel biasanya memelihara - . 1Taw 27:28 6. Dilukiskan sebagai pohon yang: 6.1 Hijau. Yer 11:6 6.2 Elok dipandang mata. Yer 11:16 6.3 Menghasilkan buah yang baik. Yer 11:16; Yak 3:12 7. Kiasan tentang pencangkokan - . Rom 11:24 8. Kiasan tentang pemotongan - . Rom 11:24 9. Seringkali bunga - gugur. Ayub 15:33 10. Seringkali buah - gugur. Ul 28:40 11. Seringkali dimakan oleh belalang. Am 4:9 12. Berguna untuk menghormati Allah dan manusia. Hak 9:9 13. Minyak dihasilkan dari - . Kel 27:20; Ul 8:8 14. Digunakan untuk: 14.1 Dua kerub dalam Bait Suci. 1Raj 6:23 14.2 Pintu dan tiang-tiang dalam Bait Suci. 1Raj 6:31-33 14.3 Pondok-pondok pada hari raya bulan yang ketujuh. Neh 8:15 15. Dipetik untuk mendapatkan hasilnya. Ul 24:20 16. Dijolok apabila semua buahnya masak. Yes 17:6 17. Sisa buahnya dibiarkan untuk orang miskin. Ul 24:20 18. Buah - pada tahun ketujuh ditinggalkan untuk orang miskin. Kel 23:11 19. Buah - diirik untuk diambil minyaknya. Mi 6:15 20. Tidak berbuah, suatu bencana besar. Hab 3:17,18 21. Melukiskan: 21.1 Kristus. Za 4:3,12; Rom 11:17,24 21.2 Jemaat orang Yahudi. Yer 11:16 21.3 Orang yang benar. Mazm 52:9 21.4 Anak-anak orang tua yang beribadah. Mazm 128:3 21.5 Kedua orang saksi. Wahy 11:3,4 21.6 (Di hutan) orang kafir. Rom 11:17,24 21.7 (Pemungutan sisa) menurut pilihan kasih karunia. Yes 17:6; 24:13; Rom 11:5 21.8 Kemungkinan asalnya - melambangkan kesentosaan. Kej 8:11 Ke atas Zaitun, Pohon Zaitun [Kamus Haag] Zaitun, Pohon Zaitun. Jenis pohon buah yang hidup lama. Pohon ini adalah suatu ciri khas untuk seluruh daerah Laut Tengah. Selalu nampak menghijau. Kebanyakan ~PZ di Palestina ditanam berkelompok membentuk hutan pada lereng-lereng pegunungan, terutama di daerah Syefela (1Taw 27:28), pada teluk Ako (Kej 49:20; Ul 33:24) dan di sekeliling Yerusalem (bdk.: Getsemani, bukit Zaitun). Kayunya yang keras sangat dihargai. Buah Zaitun dipetik dengan menggerakkan dahan atau memukulinya dengan tongkat pada bulan Oktober (Yes 17:6; 24:13) dan dijadikan minyak dengan berbagai cara. Minyak dari buah ~Z paling bersih diperoleh dengan memecahnya lewat sebuah penggilas, kemudian lalu dipres dengan batu yang berat. Cara membuat minyak ~Z yang paling tua adalah yang tetap berlaku untuk ibadat: sebagai bahan bakar untuk lampu dan pelita di dalam kemah kudus dan di dalam kenisah (Kel 27:20; Im 24:2). Juga dijadikan minyak urapan dan menjadi persembahan tambahan pada kurban bakar (Kel 29:40-41). Minyak ~Z yang kwalitasnya lebih rendah diperoleh dengan menginjak buah ~Z di dalam pres (gilingan dan pres ~Z bukan injakan yang baru dikenal orang pada zaman helenis romawi). Minyak yang dipres itu dipakai untuk makanan, untuk olesan obat dan bahan bakar. Minyak itu disimpan di dalam buli-buli (1Raj 17:12; 2Raj 4:2 dst.), di dalam tanduk (1Sam 16:1) atau di dalam buli-buli pualam (Mat 26:7) dan menjadi bahan ekspor yang penting (1Raj 5:25; Yeh 27:17). Gamb. 41. Ke atas Bukit Zaitun [Glosari AYT] Bukit di sebelah timur Yerusalem. Dari bukit ini orang-orang dapat melihat Bait Allah. Ke atas ZAITUN [Kamus Browning] Pohon yang hijau dalam segala musim, terdapat di seluruh Israel. Buahnya dihancurkan dan diperas, lalu minyaknya dikumpulkan di dalam tong. Ke atas ZAITUN, GUNUNG, ATAU BUKIT [Kamus Browning] Suatu perbukitan sepanjang 1,6 km sebelah timur Yerusalem, dipisahkan oleh Lembah --> Kidron, di mana terletak --> Getsemani (bahasa Ibrani yang berarti 'alat pemeras minyak'). Yesus beristirahat di situ untuk *berdoa (Mrk. 14:32) dan tinggal di --> Betania di sebelah selatan (Mat. 21:17). Gunung atau bukit itu adalah tempat dengan banyak ingatan eskhatologis: dari tempat ini Yesus meramalkan pemusnahan Yerusalem (Mrk. 13:3 dst.) dan Lukas menempatkan --> kenaikan Yesus ke surga di situ, dan menjanjikan akan kembali di tempat ini pula (Luk. 24:50; Kis. 1:12). Dinubuatkan bahwa pada saat Tuhan kembali ke Yerusalem, Ia akan berdiri di atas bukit (Za. 14:4), dan ini dikenakan pada Yesus. Ke atas ZAITUN [Ensiklopedia] (Ibrani zayit; Yunani elaia). Salah satu pohon paling berharga bagi orang Ibrani zaman purba. Zaitun pertama kali disebut dalam Kej 8:11, saat burung merpati kembali ke bahtera dengan sehelai daun zaitun. Setelah orang Israel menguasai Kanaan, bagi mereka zaitun merupakan tumbuhan istimewa (bnd Ul 6:11). Di kemudian hari zaitun dan anggur dihargai sebagai sumber penghasilan yg menguntungkan (1 Sam 8:14; 2 Raj 5:26). Kendati nama botani zaitun dalam bh Latin adalah Olea europaea, namun pohon itu dianggap asli Asia Barat, yg kemudian dicirikan berasal dari wilayah Laut Tengah. Orang Timur menganggap zaitun simbol kecantikan, kekuatan, berkat ilahi dan kemakmuran. Sejajar dengan tradisi Nuh, zaitun dan burung merpati dihormati sebagai lambang persahabatan dan perdamaian (bnd Mzm 52:10). Di beberapa wilayah Palestina, zaitun yg ada 4 jenisnya di Asia Barat, sering merupakan satu-satunya pohon terbesar di sekitarnya. Zaitun yg dibudidayakan bisa tumbuh sampai kr 6 m tingginya. Batangnya berubah-ubah bentuknya dan dahannya banyak. Zaitun berkembang lambat, tapi sering mencapai usia sampai beberapa abad, bila tidak diganggu. Bila pohon zaitun ditebang, maka tunas-tunas baru timbul dari akarnya. Ada kalanya timbul sampai 5 batang pohon baru. Batang-batang pohon yg hampir mati biasanya juga bertunas demikian (bnd Mzm 128:3). Rumpun zaitun umumnya dihargai sebagai sumber minyak ( --> MINYAK) biarpun rumpun itu juga sangat dihargai sebagai perlindungan terhadap terik matahari dan sebagai tempat bersemadi (Luk 22:39). Pada zaman purba pohon zaitun disebar sebanyak-banyaknya di seluruh Palestina. Hutan-hutan zaitun di pinggiran dataran Fenisia sangat mengesankan, seperti halnya di dataran Esdraelon dan lembah Sikhem. Betlehem, Hebron, Gilead, Lakhis dan Basan semuanya terkenal pada zaman Alkitab karena kemakmurannya berkat hutan-hutan zaitun. Buah-buah zaitun yg masak pada permulaan musim gugur, dipanen menjelang akhir November. Cara primitif mengumpulkan buah zaitun agak merugikan, seperti dilukiskan dalam Ul 24:20. Dengan cara itu pohon zaitun digoncang-goncang atau dipukuli dengan galah, dan cara itu masih luas dipraktikkan. Pada zaman purba biasanya buah zaitun dibiarkan tertinggal ala kadarnya di sekitar pohonnya sebagai bagian dari orang miskin. Buah zaitun dalam keranjang-keranjang di punggung keledai pengangkut biasanya diantar ke penggilingan. Minyak zaitun diperas dari buahnya dengan menaruhnya dalam waduk batu yg dangkal dan melumatkannya dengan batu gerinda besar yg tegak. Kadang-kadang buah zaitun diinjak-injak oleh para penuai (Ul 33:24; Mi 6:15), tapi cara ini kurang praktis. Setelah dibiarkan beberapa lama, maka minyak itu akan terpisah dari semua unsur lain, barulah kemudian disimpan dalam guci atau bak batu. Kedua kerub dalam Bait Suci bangunan Salomo dibuat dari kayu minyak (1 Raj 6:23). Karena tingginya kr 5,5 m (10 hasta, TBI) dan panjang sayapnya kr 6 m (masing-masing sayap 5 hasta, TBI), maka diduga kerub itu dibuat dari beberapa potong kayu yg disusun menjadi satu. Kayu zaitun masih digunakan di Palestina untuk lemari halus. Batang-batang pohon zaitun dikeringkan beberapa tahun, kayunya yg berwarna kuning sawi bermotif indah, bila dipelitur menjadi permukaan yg halus. Karena banyaknya kegunaan pohon zaitun sehingga lazim dimanfaatkan untuk banyak tujuan. Pohon zaitun dianggap layak dinamai raja pepohonan (Hak 9:8) dan pada upacara pemahkotaan minyaknya dipakai melambangkan kekuasaan. Cabang-cabang pohon zaitun digunakan untuk membangun pondok-pondok pada Hari Raya bulan ketujuh (Neh 8:15). Buah zaitun yg segar atau yg diasamkan dan yg dimakan dengan roti, termasuk makanan penting Palestina pada zaman purba. Minyak merupakan bahan dasar pengolahan salep, juga dipakai untuk merias rambut. Disamping itu minyak zaitun dipakai sebagai bahan bakar (Mat 25:3), obat (Luk 10:34; Yak 5:14), dan makanan (2 Taw 2:10). Pohon zaitun luas dipakai sebagai simbol di kalangan orang Ibrani. Kekokohan dan kelebatan buah pohon itu menggambarkan orang benar yg ideal (Mzm 52:8; Hos 14: 6), yg keturunannya dilukiskan sebagai 'tunas pohon zaitun' (Mzm 128:3). Sebagai kiasan yg mengacu pada kecakapan karena bunga zaitun kadang-kadang berguguran, terdapat dalam Ayb 15:33, di mana Elifas menyatakan bahwa orang fasik 'seperti pohon zaitun yg jatuh bunganya'. Dalam Za 4:3 kedua pohon zaitun itu adalah lambang keberhasilan mencakup kelimpahan, dengan mana Allah menyediakan segala sesuatu untuk keperluan manusia. Buah dari pohon zaitun liar ukurannya kecil dan tidak berharga. Supaya berbuah banyak maka pohon zaitun harus dicangkok. Caranya ialah mencangkokkan cabang yg baik bertumbuh pada belukar liar. Paulus menggunakan kenyataan ini sebagai kiasan (Rm 11:17), untuk memperlihatkan bagaimana non-Yahudi mempunyai kewajiban moral terhadap Israel yg benar, mencakup bahwa pada dasarnya adalah bertentangan untuk mencangkokkan zaitun liar pada batang yg baik. KEPUSTAKAAN. W. M Ramsay, Pauline and Other Studies, 1906, hlm 219 dst; H. N dan A. L Moldenke, Plants of the Bible, 1952, hlm 157-160. RKH/FNH/AL/HAO Ke atas ZAITUN, BUKIT [Ensiklopedia] Bukit Zaitun adalah rangkaian dari 4 puncak bukit mini. Puncak tertinggi 830 m, dari mana dapat memandang ke bawah ke Yerusalem dan Bait Allah bagian sudut timur melalui lembah Kidron dan kolam Siloam. Yesus mengenal bukit itu sebagai hutan lebat penuh ditumbuhi pohon zaitun, dan justru namanya disebut demikian. Tapi bukit itu telah gundul bersih pada zaman Titus. Seluruh kawasan bukit itu aman, maka tak dapat disangsikan bahwa Kristus sering ke sana. Tapi tempat-tempat khusus, yg dicirikan oleh gereja-gereja yg dibangun di lereng-lereng bukit itu, masih dipertanyakan. Seandainya, sesudah baptisan, Yesus menengadah dari tepian Yordan yg berada di bawah permukaan laut, Dia akan melihat puncak Bukit Zaitun di ketinggian kr 1.200 m di atas, yg menurut tradisi, adalah tempat di mana peristiwa 'kenaikan' terjadi. Memang Palestina adalah negeri mini dengan sosok memanjang. Rujukan PL pada Bukit Zaitun dalam 2 Sam 15:30; Neh 8:16; Yeh 11:23 hanyalah dalam artian geografis. Sedang 1 Raj 11:7 dan 2 Raj 23:13 dalam artian keterlibatan Salomo pada keberhalaan dan pembangunan bukit pengorbanan bagi Kamos dan Molokh. Mungkin karena itulah maka satu dari puncak Zaitun disebut Bukit Penghinaan. Pada masa datang, yakni masa eskatologis, Kristus akan membelah dua bukit itu saat kaki-Nya berjejak di atasnya (Za 14:4). Dekat Gereja Segala Bangsa, di kaki Bukit Zaitun, terdapat beberapa pohon zaitun tua yg mengesankan. Memang tidak dapat dibuktikan, tapi diduga pohon-pohon itu dari zaman Yesus, dan itulah taman Getsemani. Kendati tidak dapat dipastikan, tidak jauh dari situ adalah tempat di mana Yesus saat bergumul dalam doa, mengalami kengerian sehingga 'peluh-Nya menjadi seperti titik-titik darah yg bertetesan ke tanah'. Pada pertengahan jalan ke bukit berdiri gereja'Dominus Flevit'. Tapi kenapa Yesus menangis di sana? HDB menjawabnya dengan mengatakan bahwa Yesus mendekati Yerusalem melalui Betania, menyusuri punggung selatan Bukit Zaitun, dan Dia menangis begitu kota itu nampak pada-Nya. Satu gereja yg dibangun sesudah 'kenaikan' di pertapakan kawasan Bukit Zaitun, diberi bermahkotakan puncak bukit dari mana Yesus dianggap terangkat naik ke sorga. Gereja yg dibangun menggantikan gereja itu, demikian juga gereja-gereja pengganti berikutnya, tetap bermahkotakan puncak bukit yg sama. Dan jejak kaki yg dianggap adalah bekas jejak kaki Yesus, dirawat dengan teliti dalam rangka penggenapan Za 14:4. Tapi Injil Luk menyukai daerah Betania sebagai tempat kenaikan. RAS/AL/HAO Ke atas Zaitun [Kamus Lambang] (1) LAMBANG kehidupan rohani yang sehat dan berbuah. Mzm 52:10; 128:3; Za 4:3, 12; Why 11:4. (2) SIMBOL bangsa Israel, yang juga TIPE gereja. Yes 17:6; 24:13; Yer 11:16; Hos 14:7; Rm 11:17, 24. Ke atas Yunani Strongs #1636 ελαια elaia ελαια elaia: zaitun, pohon zaitun (Kamus Yoppi) ας [feminin] pohon/buah zaitun (Kamus Barclay) Strongs #1638 ελαιων elaion ελαιων elaiwn: ωνος [maskulin] kebun zaitun (Kamus Barclay) Ke atas Zaitun [Statistik] Jumlah dalam TB : 51 dalam 48 ayat (dalam OT : 33 dalam 32 ayat) (dalam NT : 18 dalam 16 ayat) Strong dalam PL : [<02132> זית ‎33x] Strong dalam PB : [<65> αγριελαιος ‎1x] [<1636> ελαια ‎15x] [<1638> ελαιων ‎1x] [<2565> καλλιελαιος ‎1x] Ke atas Peta Peta Google: Bukit Zaitun (31° 46´, 35° 14´); OpenBible: (Flickr/Panoramio) Bukit Zaitun;  Ke atas Dalam Versi-Versi Alkitab: Bukit Zaitun: BIS TB Zaitun: TB

Yerusalem

Daftar Isi: PEDOMAN: Yerusalem ; GLOSARI AYT: Yerusalem ; BROWNING: YERUSALEM , YRSLM ; ENSIKLOPEDIA: YERUSALEM ; LAMBANG: Yerusalem ; YUNANI: 2414 Ιεροσολυμα Hierosoluma ; 2415 Ιεροσολυμιτης Hierosolumites ; 2419 Ιερουσαλημ Hierousalem ; STATISTIK: YERUSALEM ; LAIN: PETA ; Dalam Versi-Versi Alkitab ; Yerusalem Yerusalem: dialaskan dengan sejahtera, kota damai. Yos 10:1. (Kamus Gering) Ke atas Yerusalem [Kamus Pedoman] 1. Pada zaman purba sering disebut Salem. Kej 14:18; Mazm 76:3 2. Juga disebut Yebus. Yos 15:8; 18:28; Hak 19:10 3. Raja - dikalahkan dan dibunuh oleh Yosua. Yos 10:5-23 4. Ditetapkan untuk suku Benyamin. Yos 18:28 5. Sebagian - dikalahkan dan dibunuh oleh bani Yehuda. Hak 1:8 6. Orang-orang Yebus: 6.1 Dahulu tinggal di - . Hak 19:10,11 6.2 Tinggal bersama-sama dengan bani Yehuda dan bani Benyamin. Yos 15:63; Hak 1:21 6.3 Akhirnya diusir dari - oleh Daud. 2Sam 5:6-8 7. Diperluas oleh Daud. 2Sam 5:9 8. Dijadikan kota kerajaan. 2Sam 5:9; 20:3 9. Khusus dipilih oleh Allah. 2Taw 6:6; Mazm 135:21 10. Tempat kedudukan wali negeri di bawah kekuasaan Romawi untuk sementara waktu. Mat 27:2,19 11. Pemerintah Romawi dipindahkan dari - ke Kaisarea. Kis 23:23,24; 25:1-13 12. Dinamai: 12.1 Takhta Tuhan. Yer 3:17 12.2 Kota Allah. Mazm 46:5; 48:2 12.3 Kota Daud. 2Taw 25:28 12.4 Kota yang tidak ditinggalkan. Yes 62:12 12.5 Kota yang setia. Yes 1:21,26 12.6 Kota kebenaran. Za 8:3 12.7 Kota Raja Besar. Mazm 48:3 12.8 Kota keadilan. Yes 1:26 12.9 Kota yang kudus. Neh 11:1; Mat 4:5 12.10 Kota Tuhan. Yes 60:14 12.11 Sion. Mazm 48:13; Yes 33:20 12.12 Sion, milik Yang Maha Kudus, Allah Israel. Yes 60:14 12.13 Tempat kediaman yang aman. Yes 33:20 13. Dikelilingi oleh gunung-gunung. Mazm 125:2 14. Dikelilingi oleh tembok. 1Raj 3:1 15. Dikelilingi dengan menara-menara. Mazm 48:13,14 16. Dimasuki dengan melalui pintu-pintu gerbang. Mazm 122:2; Yer 17:19-21 17. Raja Hizkia membuat kolam dan saluran air dan mengalirkan airnya ke kota - . 2Raj 20:20 18. Rampasan perang disimpan di - . 1Sam 17:54; 2Sam 8:7 19. Dilukiskan sebagai: 19.1 Besar. Yer 22:8 19.2 Cantik. Kid 6:4 19.3 Kegirangan bagi seluruh bumi. Mazm 48:3; Rat 2:15 19.4 Sangat kaya pada zaman Salomo. 1Raj 10:26,27; Pengkh 2:8-12 19.5 Kota yang menjulang permai. Mazm 48:3 19.6 Seperti ratu di antara kota-kota. Rat 1:1 19.7 Kota yang paling indah. Rat 2:15 19.8 Penuh dengan segala macam urusan dan kerusuhan. Yes 22:3 19.9 Ramai. Rat 1:1 19.10 Tersusun rapat. Mazm 122:3 20. Dilindungi oleh Allah. Yes 31:5 21. Penjagaan dan perlindungan Allah terhadap - diceritakan dalam. 2Sam 24:16; 2Raj 19:32-34; 2Taw 12:7 22. Rumah Tuhan didirikan di - . 2Taw 3:1; Mazm 68:30 23. Orang Yahudi: 23.1 Berdoa ke kiblat - . 1Raj 8:44; Dan 6:11 23.2 Berdukacita karena kesukaran di - . Neh 1:2-4 23.3 Mendoakan untuk kesejahteraan - . Mazm 51:19; 122:6 23.4 Mengasihi - . Mazm 137:5,6 23.5 Pergi ke - pada hari raya. Luk 2:42; Mazm 122:4 24. Kejahatan - . Yes 1:1-4; Yer 5:1-5; Mi 3:10 25. Penyembahan berhala di - . 2Taw 28:24; Yeh 8:7-10 26. Kejahatan - menyebabkan kebinasaannya. 2Raj 21:12-15; 2Taw 24:18; Rat 1:8; Yeh 5:5-8 27. Menjadi kuburan nabi-nabi. Luk 13:33,34 28. Kristus: 28.1 Berkhotbah di - . Luk 21:37,38; Yoh 18:20 28.2 Berdukacita atas - . Mat 23:27; Luk 19:41 28.3 Disalib di - . Luk 9:31; Kis 13:27,29 28.4 Masuk ke - sebagai raja di depan orang banyak. Mat 21:9,10 28.5 Mengadakan banyak mujizat. Yoh 4:45 29. Injil mula-mula diberitakan di - . Luk 24:47; Kis 2:14 30. Karunia-karunia Roh Kudus yang ajaib mula-mula dinyatakan di - . Kis 1:4; 2:1-5 31. Penganiayaan jemaat Kristen mulai di - . Kis 4:1; 8:1 32. Majelis Kristen yang mula-mula diadakan di - . Kis 15:4,6 33. Kebinasaan - disebut: 33.1 Diambil dan dirampas oleh Sisak. 1Raj 14:25,26; 2Taw 12:1-4 33.2 Diambil dan dirampas oleh Yoas, raja bangsa Israel. 2Raj 14:13,14 33.3 Diancam oleh Sanbalat. Neh 4:7,8 33.4 Dikalahkan dan ditaklukkan oleh Firaun Nekho. 2Raj 23:33-35 33.5 Dikepung oleh Rezin dan Pekah, tetapi tidak dikalahkan. 2Raj 16:5; Yes 7:1 33.6 Dikepung oleh Sanherib tetapi tidak dikalahkan. 2Raj 18:17; 2Raj 19:1-37 33.7 Dikepung oleh Nebukadnezar. 2Raj 24:10,11 33.8 Dikalahkan dan dibakar oleh Nebukadnezar. 2Raj 25:1-30; Yer 39:1-8 34. Didirikan kembali setelah kembali dari pembuangan atas perintah Koresy. Ezr 1:1-4 35. Nubuat-nubuat tentang - : 35.1 Akan dijarah oleh raja Babel. Yer 20:5 35.2 Akan dibinasakan oleh orang Romawi. Luk 19:42-44 35.3 Akan dijadikan timbunan puing. Yer 9:11; 26:18 35.4 Akan dibangun kembali oleh Koresy. Yes 44:26-28 35.5 Akan menjadi padang gurun. Yes 64:10 35.6 Akan menjadi satu tempat kediaman yang aman. Yes 33:20 35.7 Injil akan diberitakan dari - . Yes 2:3; 40:9 35.8 Kekalahannya akan disertai dengan bencana yang hebat. Mat 24:21,29; Luk 21:23,24 35.9 Kristus akan masuk - sebagai Raja. Za 9:9 35.10 Semua musuhnya sangat takut kepada - . Za 12:2,3 35.11 Tanda-tanda yang akan mendahului kebinasaan - . Mat 24:6-15; Luk 21:7-11,25,28 36. Melukiskan: 36.1 (Keadaannya yang kuat) orang-orang saleh di bawah perlindungan Allah. Mazm 125:2 36.2 Jemaat. Gal 4:25,26; Ibr 12:22 36.3 Jemaat yang dipermuliakan. Wahy 3:12; 21:2,10 Ke atas Yerusalem [Glosari AYT] Kota suci yang menjadi pusat kegiatan ibadah dan pemerintahan Israel, baik selama zaman PL maupun zaman PB. Di sanalah Bait Allah dibangun. Yerusalem juga sering disebut sebagai Kota Kudus (Neh. 11:18; Yes. 48:2; Mat. 27:53; Why. 22:19 -- Yerusalem Baru), Sion (mis. dalam ….), Kota Daud Ke atas YERUSALEM [Kamus Browning] Terletak di tengah daerah perbukitan, merupakan kota kunci dalam peristiwa-peristiwa historis PL dan PB. Namun, secara geografis sumbangan kota ini kurang menarik, dengan persediaan air yang terbatas, iklim yang tidak nyaman, dan tanah yang tandus. Namun, di tangan orang-orang --> Yesus, kota ini terhampar dengan baik sekali di wilayah utara --> Yehuda, di perbatasan dengan suku-suku utara. Kecerdikan --> Daud adalah memilih kota yang netral ini sebagai ibu kota ideal, sehingga dari sana ia dapat memerintah, baik utara maupun selatan, dalam kesatuan religius dan politis. Di bawah --> Yoab, panglimanya, kota ini diserbu dan direbut (2 Sam. 5:8). Di perbatasan dengan kerajaan Utara dibangun istana raja, dan tempat Bait Allah dipilih di atas Gunung --> Moria, yang dibangun oleh --> Salomo, anak Daud. Sejak itu, Yerusalem menjadi pusat keagamaan dan politik, sering kali makmur, dan berulang kali diserang, serta menjadi tujuan jutaan peziarah. Sayangnya, Yerusalem sebagai pusat keagamaan bersama, yang ideal untuk kedua bagian kerajaan itu, tidak berlangsung lama. Bahkan pada masa Salomo pun berbagai penyembahan kafir diizinkan berada di daerah pinggiran, dan setelah perpecahan, ketika Israel Utara memisahkan diri dari Yehuda, di Utara dibangun tempat-tempat suci untuk mencegah orang-orang yang man beribadah agar tidak pergi ke Yerusalem. Namun, Yerusalem terns berkembang. Oleh --> Hizkia tembok-tembok diperkuat, dan persediaan air ditambah dengan kolam --> Siloam (Yoh. 8:7). Ketika --> Sanherib membawa pasukan --> Asyur ke gerbang-gerbangnya, pertahanan kota itu tidak pernah benarbenar diuji. Namun, para nabi memperingatkan (mis. Mi. 3:12) bahwa pertahanan kota itu tidak akan berlangsung abadi. Hal tersebut digenapi ketika bangsa --> Babel merampasnya pada 539 sM, dan membuang banyak penduduk yang terkemuka, serta kembali meluluh-lantakkan Yerusalem rata dengan tanah pada 586 sM.*Koresy, raja Persia, mengizinkan orang-orang huangan di Babel untuk kembali dan membangun Yerusalem lagi pada 538 sM. Beherapa orang mennang melakukan hal itu, 11 amun pembangunan kembali Yerusalem, termasuk Bait Allah, hanyalah dalam skala kecil. Tembok-tembok yang dibangun atas perintah --> Nehemia pada 445 sM, hanya mengelilingi wilayah yang sempit, sehingga Yerusalem tidak dapat lagi menikmatl nama besarnya di masa sebelum --> pembuangan. Walaupun demikian, hal ini hermanfaat untuk mempertahankan idealideal keagamaan Yahudi. Kemiskinan duniawi telah mengilhamkan mimpi-mimpi *eskhatologis mengenai Yerusalem Baru, tempat Allah akan ditinggikan sebagai raja yang menang (Za. 14:16). Bangsa-bangsa akan tertarik kepadanya dan orang-orang --> bukan Yahudi akan berziarah ke sana (Za. 8:21).Pada zaman --> Aleksander Agung kedudukan Yerusalem yang secara politis penting itu dipulihkan, namun gagasan dan adat kebiasaan Helenistik di bawah dinasti --> Seleukid dari Siria pada abad kedua sM (iMak. 1:14) telah mengusik perasaan khawatir orang-orang Yahudi tradisionalis, yang dalam era --> Hasmonean, di antara 160 dan 134 sM, membangun kembali dan membentengi kota itu. Setelah kemenangan Romawi pada 63 M, kota tersebut bertumbuh lebih besar dan bangunan-bangunan megah didirikan oleh --> Herodes Agung, yang diangkat menjadi raja pada 37 sM. Tembok-tembok, benteng-benteng. dan gerbanggerbang kota, terlihat dengan jelas, dan sekeliling Bait Allah didominasi oleh Benteng Antonia, tempat Paulus dipenjarakan (Kis. 21:34). Diperlukan jumlah rumah yang berlipat ganda untuk menampung penghuni sekitar 25.000 orang, yang bahkan berlipat tiga kali pada perayaan --> Paskah oleh para peziarah, dan tandon air yang disebut Kolam Domba (Yoh. 5:2) digali. Di atas semua itu, Herodes mulai membangun Bait Allah yang sangat besar, yang luasnya meliputi seperempat wilayah kota Yerusalem, meskipun sulit diterima oleh orang-orang Yahudi yang keras, karena Herodes berdarah campuran ( --> Idumea).Ketika ketegangan antara orang-orang Yahudi dan Romawi berkobar menjadi pemberontakan pada 66 M, tinggal menghitung saat sebelum kota tersebut dihancurkan kembali (70 M), sebagaimana telah diingatkan Yesus, jika umat itu menolak jalan damai yang diberitakan-Nya (Luk. 19:41-44; 21:20-24). Namun, angkatan orang Romawi yang lain telah memutuskan untuk membangun tempat suci di lokasi Bait Allah itu untuk memuja Yupiter. Orang-orang Yahudi nasionalis, tidak dapat lagi dihalangi, mereka memberontak di bawah pimpinan *Bar Kokhba pada 130 M. Pemberontakan itu dipadamkan, dan kuil penyembah berhala dibangun (bnd. Mrk. 14: 13); orang-orangYahudi dibinasakan; pasukan Romawi yang dibentuk di kota itu kini menyebutnya Aelia Capitolina, menurut nama keluarga Kaisar Adrianus (yang dimaksud Capitolina adalah Dewa Yupiter). Hingga zaman Kaisar Konstantin (330 M), yang membuat kota itu menjadi pusat kekristenan dengan sejumlah gereja, tidak ada perubahan besar yang terjadi. Pada 451 M, jabatan uskup ditingkatkan menjadi Uskup Agung. Kota itu lebih dari sekali dirampas oleh penyerang-penyerang Islam, dan sejak abad ke-13 hingga abad ke-20 berada di tangan mereka. Lokasi Bait Allah, yang di sana terdapat kubah batu karang, dijadikan tempat suci, yang dipuja karena dipercayai bahwa dari tempat itulah Muhammad naik ke surga. Umat Yahudi mempercayai bahwa batu itu adalah batu yang digunakan oleh --> Abraham ketika bermaksud mengorbankan Ishak. Karena itu, Yerusalem dianggap suci oleh tiga agama besar. Ke atas YRSLM [Kamus Browning] Huruf-huruf Ibrani untuk Yerusalem terdapat pada mata uang logam dari zaman pemberontakan Yahudi pada tahun 66-70 M, dan 132-135 M. Ke atas YERUSALEM [Ensiklopedia] I. Pengantar dan gambaran umum Yerusalem adalah salah satu kota termasyhur di dunia. Dengan nama Yerusalem, kota itu sudah berdiri paling sedikit sejak milenium 3 sM. Dewasa ini Yerusalem dipandang kota suci oleh penganut tiga agama monoteis, yaitu agama Yahudi, Kristen dan Islam. Yerusalem menjulang tinggi di punggung bukit pegunungan Yehuda, kr 50 km dari Laut Tengah dan kr 30 km sebelah barat ujung utara Laut Mati. Pertapakan kota itu tidak begitu datar, dan agak tajam menurun ke arah tenggara. sebelah timur terdapat bukit Zaitun. Kecuali dari utara jalan masuk ke kota Yerusalem terhalang dari semua arah oleh tiga jurang yg dalam, yg bertemu di lembah Siloam, dekat mata air Bir Eyub, di tenggara kota itu. Di sebelah timur adalah lembah Kidron; di sebelah barat yg disebut sekarang Wadi al-Rababi, dan barangkali harus disamakan dengan lembah Hinom. Lembah ketiga membelah dua kota itu sebelum menurun ke selatan dan sedikit ke timur, yg kemudian bersatu dengan kedua lembah tadi. Lembah terakhir tidak disebut dalam Alkitab (walaupun 'Lumpang' [Zef 1:11], mungkin adalah nama dari sebagian daerah itu); jadi biasanya itu disebut lembah Tiropuon, artinya lembah dari pembuat keju, menurut Yosefus. Bukit-bukit yg menjulang di kiri kanan lembah Tiropuon dan juga kota itu dapat langsung dibagi dua, yaitu bagian barat dan timur. Tanpa menghiraukan bukit-bukit yg agak rendah, kedua bagian ini dapat lagi dibagi menjadi bukit-bukit utara dan selatan. Untuk mengetahui perkembangan Yerusalem (lih IV), adalah baik sekali meneliti perincian-perincian berikut. Berbicara tentang tingginya bukit-bukit atau dalamnya lembah-lembah itu, haruslah disadari bahwa selama berabad-abad telah mengalami perubahan-perubahan mencolok. Hal ini tak terelakkan oleh setiap kota yg berabad-abad terus dihuni, apalagi yg secara berkala ditimpa bencana alam. Timbunan puing-puing dan reruntuhan yg berlapis-lapis, menggunung di beberapa bagian Yerusalem dan tingginya lebih 30 m. Dalam ihwal Yerusalem terkait juga faktor lain, yaitu usaha-usaha terencana pada waktu yg berbeda-beda untuk menutup jurang dan meratakan bukit-bukitnya. Penyediaan air minum tetap merupakan masalah. Disamping sumber air Bir Eyub dan mata air yg sudah disebut di atas, sumber air lainnya hanyalah Mata Air Anak Dara, yg dihubungkan dengan kolam Siloam (Yoh 9:7) melalui saluran. Memang ada waduk air lainnya seperti Betsaida (PB) dan kini Waduk Mamilla, tapi semuanya mengandalkan air hujan atau air yg disalurkan kepadanya. Mungkin sekali bahwa Bir Eyub dan Mata Air Anak Dara secara berurutan adalah En-Rogel dan Gihon dalam Alkitab. Bir Eyub terletak di sebelah tenggara Yerusalem, pada titik temu ketiga jurang seperti disebut di atas. Mata Air Anak Dara dekat di sebelah utara Bir Eyub, di timur dan sedikit ke sebelah selatan tempat Bait Suci. Dengan demikian jelas bahwa hanya bagian tenggara Yerusalem yg mempunyai persediaan air minum yg dapat dipercaya. Lih A Mazar, 'The Aqueducts of Jerusalem,' dalam Y Yadin, Jerusalem Revealed, hlm 79-84. II. Nama Arti nama kota itu tidaklah pasti. Kata Ibraninya dalam PL biasanya adalah yerusyalaim tapi bentuk ini tidak biasa, karena bh Ibrani tidak mempunyai dua huruf hidup berurutan. Dalam bh Ibrani selanjutnya keganjilan ini diatasi dengan menyisipkan huruf 'y', sehingga menjadi yerusyalayim. Bentuk ini memang beberapa kali muncul dalam PL, ump Yer 26:18. Barangkali sebaiknyalah ini dimengerti sebagai bentuk jamak (sebab akhiran -ayim berarti rangkap dua), dan memandang kota itu seolah-olah dua bagian. (Begitu juga nama Ibrani untuk 'Mesir', yaitu mitsrayim, juga bentuk jamak.) Tapi hampir pasti bahwa bentuk asli kata itu dalam bh Ibrani ialah yerusyalem; ini terbukti dari kependekan syalem dalam Mzm 76:2, dan bentuk Aram dari nama itu: yerusylem, seperti dalam Ezr 5:14, dst. Nama Yerusalem berasal dari zaman pra-Israel, dan muncul dalam Naskah-naskah Kutuk Mesir (abad 19-18 sM, bentuknya Rushalimum) dan dalam naskah-naskah Asyur yg kemudian (bentuknya Urusalim atau Urisalimmu). Nama itu juga terdapat dalam Arsip Ebla, lk 2500 sM. Biasanya bagian pertama nama itu dianggap berarti 'dasar'. Bagian kedua (walaupun seakar dgn kata Ibrani untuk 'damai') mungkin sekali mengacu kepada dewa Kanaan, Syalem. Jadi besar kemungkinan arti asli nama itu adalah 'Fondasi Syalem'. Tapi dalam perjalanan waktu bagian kedua dihubungkan dengan 'damai' (Ibrani syalom) dalam pikiran orang Yahudi (bnd Ibr 7:2). Dalam bh Yunani PB nama itu dialihaksarakan dengan dua cara yg berbeda, yaitu Hierosoluma (seperti dlm Mat 2:1) dan Hierousalem (seperti dlm Mat 23:37). Jelas yg terakhir merupakan pendekatan kepada pelafalan Ibrani dan kebetulan merupakan bukti tambahan bagi 'e' sebagai huruf hidup akhir yg asli dalam bh Ibrani. Yg pertama sengaja di-Helenisasi-kan, untuk membentuk kata yg berbunyi seperti kata Yunani. Bagian pertama kata itu langsung mengingatkan orang akan kata Yunani hieros, artinya 'kudus', dan barangkali seluruh kata itu diterima hendak memberi pengertian ump 'Salem yg kudus'. Dalam LXX hanya ada bentuk Hierousalem, dan para penulis Yunani kuno menamai Hierosoluma (ump Polibius; demikian juga dlm bh Latin, ump Plinius). Dalam Yes 52:1 Yerusalem disebut'kota yg kudus', dan sampai hari ini sebutan ini sering diterima dalam arti demikian. Ungkapan Ibrani ialah 'Ir hag-qodesy, harfiah'kota suci' (atau 'kota yg kudus'). Mungkin alasannya ialah karena di Yerusalem terdapat Bait Suci, dan di situlah Allah sudi menjumpai umat-Nya. Karena itu kata qodesy mempunyai arti 'tempat suci' selain 'kesucian'. Maka bagi Yudaisme, Yerusalem adalah kota suci yg tiada duanya. Adalah wajar bila Paulus dan Yohanes melihat Yerusalem dunia ini jauh dari sempurna, karena membandingkannya dengan tempat tinggal Allah dalam kekudusan sejati, sebagai 'Yerusalem sorgawi' (Gal 4:26) atau 'Yerusalem yg baru' (Why 21:2). Mengenai nama-nama lain yg dimiliki kota itu, lih III, di bawah. III. Sejarah Bekas-bekas permukiman prasejarah di Yerusalem telah ditemukan, tapi sejarahnya yg paling awal tak dapat ditelusuri. Yerusalem disebut dalam Naskah-naskah Kutuk dari Mesir lk 2000 sM, dan dalam Surat-surat el-Amarna yg melaporkan Yerusalem diperintah oleh raja bernama Abd Khiba di bawah kekuasaan tertinggi Mesir; barangkali pada waktu itu Yerusalem tidak lebih dari suatu benteng di pegunungan. Rujukan dalam Pentateukh pada kota ini mungkin adalah Salem (Kej 14:18) dan gunung di 'tanah Moria' pada Kej 22:2. Menurut tradisi paling dini, G Moria kemudian dijadikan pertapakan Bait Suci, tapi tak ada bukti yg mendukungnya. Mengenai Salem, hampir pasti adalah sama dengan Yerusalem, bnd Mzm 76:2. Jadi pada masa itu Yerusalem diperintah oleh raja Melkisedek, yg juga adalah imam dari Allah Yg Mahatinggi ('el 'elyon). Waktu bangsa Israel memasuki Kanaan, mereka mendapati Yerusalem di bawah kekuasaan bangsa Sem pribumi, rumpun Yebus, diperintah oleh raja bernama Adoni-Zedek. Raja ini mengadakan persekutuan melawan Yosua, yg mengalahkan mereka secara mutlak. Tapi Yosua tidak menduduki Yerusalem, tentu karena kota itu kuat secara alami. Yerusalem tetap dalam kekuasaan orang Yebus. Membandingkan Hak 1:8 dengan Hak 1:21 nampaklah bahwa Yehuda merebut wilayah bagian luar tembok Yerusalem, dan yg menduduki wilayah luar itu ialah suku Benyamin, yg hidup damai dengan orang Yebus, yg tinggal di dalam kota. Selang beberapa kurun waktu kemudian Daud menjadi raja. Ibu kotanya yg pertama ialah Hebron, tapi segera ia menyadari pentingnya peranan Yerusalem dan menaklukkannya. Tindakan ini bukanlah melulu kebijakan taktik, tapi juga merupakan kebijakan diplomatik. Sebab dengan menduduki Yerusalem yg terletak di perbatasan wilayah Benyamin dan Yehuda, akan mengurangi kecemburuan antar kedua suku itu. Orang Yebus yakin aman dikelilingi tembok-tembok benteng mereka. Tapi tentara Daud menyerbu melalui jalan masuk yg tak diduga-duga dan menaklukkan Yerusalem (2 Sam 5:6-8). Di sini muncul nama ketiga, yaitu 'Sion'. Mungkin inilah nama bukit pertapakan kubu pertahanan itu. Tapi Vincent berpendapat lain -- mengatakan bahwa nama Sion mulanya dipakai untuk bangunan kubu pertahanan, bukan untuk bukit pertapakan kubu itu. Sesudah merebut Yerusalem, Daud memperkuat kubu pertahanan kota itu dan membangun istana bagi dirinya. Ia menempatkan tabut perjanjian ke ibu kota yg baru itu. Raja Salomo melanjutkan pembangunan kubu pertahanan, tapi karyanya yg terbesar ialah pembangunan Bait Suci. Sepeninggal Salomo yg disusuli terbagi duanya kerajaan, kemegahan Yerusalem menurun sebab sekarang hanya menjadi ibu kota Yehuda saja. Baru memasuki thn ke-5 pemerintahan Rehabeam, raja penerus Salomo, peralatan Bait Suci dan istana raja dijarah oleh tentara Mesir (1 Raj 14:25 dab). Kemudian orang Filistin dan Arab menjarah lagi barang-barang istana pada pemerintahan Yoram. Pada pemerintahan Amazia timbul pertentangan dengan Yoas, raja kerajaan Utara, yg mengakibatkan sebagian tembok kota diruntuhkan, barang-barang Bait Suci dan istana kembali dirampok. Raja Uzia membangun kembali benteng pertahanan yg diruntuhkan itu, sehingga kemudian raja Ahas mampu mematahkan serangan terpadu. tentara Siria dan Israel. Segera sesudah peristiwa ini kerajaan Utara jatuh ke dalam kekuasaan Asyur. Hizkia, raja Yehuda, mempunyai alasan takut kepada Asyur, tapi Yerusalem luput oleh perlindungan Tuhan. Dalam keadaan terkepung, ia membangun saluran untuk memenuhi persediaan air. Nebukadnezar, raja Babel, menghancurkan Yerusalem dan Bait Suci thn 587 sM. Pada akhir abad itu orang Yahudi -- telah berada di bawah pemerintahan Persia -- diizinkan pulang ke negeri dan kota mereka dan membangun Bait Suci, tapi tembok-tembok Yerusalem tetap dalam keadaan hancur, sampai dibangun kembali oleh Nehemia pada pertengahan abad 5 sM. Pada akhir abad 4 Iskandar Agung menyingkirkan Persia sebagai penguasa. Sesudah Iskandar Agung meninggal, penerusnya -- jenderal Ptolemeus, pendiri wangsa Ptolemeus di Mesir, memasuki Yerusalem dan menjadikannya wilayah kerajaannya. Pada thn 198 sM Palestina jatuh ke dalam kekuasaan Antiokhus III, raja Siria keturunan Seleukus. Kr 30 thn kemudian Antiokhus IV memasuki Yerusalem, memusnahkan tembok-temboknya seraya menjarah dan menajiskan Bait Suci. Ia menempatkan tentara Siria di atas bukit Akra untuk menguasai Yerusalem. Yudas Makabe memimpin orang Yahudi memberontak, dan thn 165 sM Bait Suci ditahbiskan kembali. Akhirnya ia dan para penerusnya berhasil merebut kemerdekaan bagi Yudea. Golongan Hasmonean memerintah Yerusalem yg merdeka sampai pertengahan abad 1 sM, tatkala kerajaan Roma campur tangan. Jenderal jenderal Romawi merebut Yerusalem dengan kekerasan pada thn 63 dan 54. Kemudian tentara Partia menjarah Yerusalem pada thn 40; dan 3 thn kemudian Herodes Agung harus berperang untuk memasuki dan menguasai kota itu. Mula-mula ia memperbaiki kerusakan-kerusakan akibat serbuan-serbuan tersebut. Lalu ia memulai pembangunan besar-besaran dan mendirikan beberapa menara strategis. Pekerjaannya yg paling termasyhur ialah pembangunan Bait Suci yg baru, yg jauh lebih besar dan agung kendati bangunan itu tidak selesai pada masa hidupnya. Salah satu menara strategis itu ialah benteng Antonia, dari mana daerah sekitar Bait Suci dapat diawasi (itulah tempat tentara Roma yg bersedia menolong Paulus, Kis 21:34). Pemberontakan orang Yahudi menentang orang Roma pada thn 66 M tak mungkin berarti lain kecuali sia-sia. Pada thn 70 M Titus, panglima Romawi, secara sistematis memasuki Yerusalem dengan kekerasan, menghancurkan benteng-benteng pertahanan dan Bait Suci. Tapi ia membiarkan tiga menara tegak berdiri; satu di antaranya ialah menara Fasael, masih ada, digabung menjadi satu dengan yg disebut 'Menara Daud'. Tapi kemusnahan berikutnya menyusul; pemberontakan yg terjadi thn 132 M mendampakkan pembangunan Yerusalem kembali (dgn ukuran yg jauh lebih kecil) sebagai kota bangsa kafir, yg dipersembahkan kepada dewa Yupiter Kapitolinus, ke mana seorang Yahudi pun tak boleh masuk. Kota kafir ini adalah karya Kaisar Hadrianus; kota baru itu ia namai Aelia Kapitolina (nama itu, kemudian masuk bahkan ke dlm bh Arab, yaitu kata Iliya). Baru pada pemerintahan Kaisar Konstantin (awal abad 4) orang Yahudi diperbolehkan memasuki kota itu. Sejak pemerintahannya Yerusalem berubah dari kota kafir menjadi kota Kristen. Banyak gereja dan biara dibangun, dan yg paling utama ialah Gereja Kuburan Suci. Sesudah abad 2 Yerusalem mengalami banyak peristiwa. Penakluknya berganti-ganti: orang Persia, orang Arab, orang Turki, orang Eropa (Perang Salib), orang Inggris dan orang Israel. Perkembangan paling penting dalam wilayah Kota Lama (tanpa menyebut kota satelit modern) sebagian merupakan karya orang Islam pertama, sebagian karya orang Turki dan khususnya Sultan Suleiman Agung, yg pada thn 1542 membangun kembali tembok-tembok kota seperti yg masih terlihat masa kini. Orang Israel menamai kota itu dengan nama kunonya yerusyalayim; dalam bh Arab dipakai al-Quds (al-Sharif), 'Tempat Kudus (yg agung)'. IV. Perkembangan kota dan luasnya Tentang sejarah perkembangan fisik Yerusalem masih diragukan. Sebagian disebabkan malapetaka dan kehancuran periodik, yg mengakibatkan timbunan reruntuhan menjadi berlapis-lapis selama berabad-abad. Faktor-faktor ini menimbulkan kesukaran di mana-mana, tapi para arkeolog sering sanggup mengatasi bagian terbesar kesukaran itu. Kesukaran khusus mengenai Yerusalem ialah bahwa kota itu terus-menerus dihuni sejak dahulu dan terus demikian sampai sekarang, sehingga penggalian seolah mustahil. Di Yerusalem para arkeolog peneliti terpaksa menggali di mana bisa dilakukan penggalian, bukan di mana mereka anggap tepat dilakukan penggalian. Di pihak lain, berlimpah tradisi Kristen, Yahudi dan Islam; tapi data itu sukar dievaluasi. Karena itu ketidakpastian dan silang pendapat tetap masalah. Kendati demikian pada abad yg lalu sudah dihasilkan banyak karya arkeolog yg sangat berharga dan bermanfaat untuk menyelesaikan beberapa masalah. Alkitab tidak memberikan gambaran sistematis mengenai Yerusalem. Yg agak sistematis ialah laporan pembangunan kembali tembok Yerusalem oleh Nehemia. Dan untunglah ada banyak ay yg memberi semacam keterangan. Ay-ay itu harus dihubungkan yg satu dengan yg lain dan dicocokkan dengan acuan arkeologi. Gambaran tertua mengenai Yerusalem ialah karya Yosefus (BJ 5. 136-141); Yosefus memberikan latar belakang penaklukan Yerusalem langkah demi langkah oleh Titus dan tentara Romawi. Ini juga harus dicocokkan dengan acuan arkeologi. Hasil analisis atas temuan galian-galian menyimpulkan bahwa kota paling awal berada di bukit tenggara. Sekarang daerah itu berada di luar tembok kota (tembok selatan dimundurkan ke utara pada abad 2 M). Perlu diingat bahwa nama Sion pernah diberikan kepada bukit yg di barat daya, tapi secara salah: Sion yg sebenarnya terletak di bukit timur. Bangunan dari zaman pra-Yebus hanya ada sedikit yg tersisa, tapi boleh jadi bahwa suatu kota kecil berkembang di bukit tenggara dekat mata air Gihon di sebelah timur. Orang Yebus memperluas kota tapi sangat terbatas, berupa pembangunan teras-teras ke sebelah timur, sehingga tembok timur berada di bawah bukit dekat mata air itu. Teras-teras dan tembok timur ini nampaknya sering menuntut pemeliharaan dan perbaikan sampai dibinasakan oleh orang Babel pada permulaan abad 6 sM; pada saat itu juga tembok timur dimundurkan kembali ke bukit timur. Kini pendapat cenderung menganggap 'Milo' (mis 2 Sam 5:9; 1 Raj 9:15) berasal dari akar kata yg berarti 'mengisi', mengacu pada teras-teras tadi. Dalam keadaan damai adalah biasa membangun rumah di luar tembok kota, dan permukiman baru ini menuntut tembok dan benteng baru. Kota Daud dan kota Salomo diperluas ke arah utara, Bait Suci dibangun di bukit timur laut. Istana raja mungkin terletak antara kota lama dan Bait Suci. Daerah 'antara' itu mungkin adalah 'Ofel' dalam 2 Taw 27:3 (nama itu berarti 'bengkak', dipakai juga untuk bukit benteng kota-kota lain, mis Samaria, bnd 2 Raj 5:24); tapi beberapa ahli mengenakan nama itu pada seluruh bukit timur di sisi selatan Bait Suci. Kota orang Yebus, atau hanya bentengnya, disebut 'Sion' sewaktu ditaklukkan oleh Daud (arti nama 'Sion' tidak pasti, mungkin 'kering' atau 'tanjakan'). Sesudah penaklukan itulah kota itu disebut 'kota Daud' (bnd 2 Sam 5:6-10; 1 Raj 8:1). Nama Sion menjadi sama dengan Yerusalem seluruhnya. Pada masa-masa makmur abad 8 Yerusalem berkembang pertama-tama ke arah bukit barat, daerah yg disebut 'perkampungan baru' atau Misyneh (2 Raj 22:14). Kemudian perkampungan ini dipagari dengan tembok, yg dibangun pada pemerintahan raja Hizkia (2 Taw 32:5) atau lebih kemudian lagi. Perluasan ini pasti meliputi bukit barat laut, tapi tidaklah pasti apakah mencakup bukit barat daya atau tidak. Para arkeolog Israel menganggapnya tercakup, jadi kolam Siloam pada kerajaan Hizkia terletak di dalam tembok kota; tapi K. M Kenyon tidak sependapat. Tentara Nebukadnezar merebut Yerusalem thn 587 sM; kebanyakan bangunan dan tembok kota hancur dalam perang itu. Pada akhir abad itu Bait Suci dibangun kembali (lk 520 sM), dan penduduk Yerusalem kembali kecil jumlahnya. Tapi barulah pada pertengahan abad 5 pemerintah Persia mengizinkan Nehemia membangun kembali tembok-tembok Yerusalem. Tentu ia memanfaatkan tembok lama sebanyak mungkin, tapi penggalian membuktikan ia tidak menjamah bukit barat, dan juga lereng timur bukit tenggara. Teras-teras bangunan orang Yebus yg sudah runtuh tak dapat diperbaiki lagi, dan Nehemia memundurkan tembok timur ke bukit timur. Sayang, gambaran mengenai pembangunan kembali tembok itu menimbulkan banyak masalah. Ump, tidak jelas pintu-pintu gerbang mana yg berada di dalam tembok kota dan yg mana yg menuju ke Bait Suci. Kedua, dalam berita-berita Nehemia yg terkait timbul banyak masalah. Dan Nehemia tidak memberi keterangan mengenai tanda-tanda arah atau perubahan arah. Lagipula nama gerbang-gerbang itu berubah dari waktu ke waktu. Tapi jelas bahwa gambaran pembangunan sesuai Neh 3 mulai di bagian utara kota, bergerak berlawanan dengan arah jarum jam. Tidak ada bukti bahwa kota berkembang ke arah barat hingga abad 2 sM. Sesudah pemberontakan Makabe, pengembangan Yerusalem dimulai lagi. Herodes Agung memimpin pembangunan raksasa pada abad 1 sM, dan Yerusalem terus berkembang sampai pada saat kehancurannya dalam Perang Yahudi thn 70 M. Sumber data literatur dari zaman itu yg paling utama adalah karya Yosefus, tapi sayang informasinya meninggalkan sejumlah masalah tanpa pemecahannya. Masalah pertama adalah letak 'Akra', yakni benteng Siria yg dibangun pada thn 169 sM untuk mengawasi kawasan Bait Suci. Penggalian paling akhir cenderung menempatkan Akra di selatan Bait Suci, tapi silang pendapat masih berlanjut (lih BASOR 176, 1964, hlm 10 dst). Masalah berikut ialah 'Tembok Kedua' dan 'Tembok Ketiga' yg disebut Yosefus. Waktu tentara Romawi menyerang Yerusalem mereka menerobos tiga tembok utara berturut-turut. Yosefus menggambarkan pangkal dan ujung ketiga tembok itu, tapi ia tidak menjelaskan rentangan ketiganya. Memang penggalian-penggalian telah menjelaskan beberapa hal, tapi ketidakpastian masih banyak yg belum terjawab. Sisa-sisa tembok kuno dekat Gerbang Damsyik dianggap oleh Kenyon adalah bagian dari Tembok Ketiga, tapi para arkeolog Israel menganggapnya bagian dari Tembok Kedua. Dan sisa-sisa tembok yg agak jauh di utara mereka hubungkan dengan Tembok Ketiga itu, tapi Kenyon menghubungkannya dengan tembok yg dibangun oleh Titus selama Yerusalem dikepung. Karena Tembok Ketiga yg pembangunannya dimulai oleh Agripa I (41-44 M), belum juga selesai waktu timbulnya pemberontakan Yahudi pada thn 70, maka stratigrafis -- salah satu metode arkeologi -- sukar membedakan tembok bangunan Agripa dari tembok bangunan Titus. Tembok Kedua pasti dibangun pada abad 2 sM atau abad 1 sM (Yosefus tidak memberikan tarikh pembangunannya). Tapi apakah hubungan Tembok Kedua itu dengan Gereja Kuburan Suci? Gereja itu, jika memang benar tempat penyaliban Kristus, pasti terletak di luar tembok Yerusalem. Lama sudah diragukan apakah gereja itu terletak di dalam atau di luar garis Tembok Kedua (Tembok Ketiga belum ada pada waktu itu). Sekarang sudah ditentukan bahwa pertapakan yg dimaksud terletak di sebelah utara tembok, jadi pertapakan Gereja Kuburan Suci bisa benar tempat penyaliban Kristus. Antara 70 M dan pemberontakan Bar-Kokhba 60 thn kemudian, Yerusalem terlantar penuh onggokan reruntuhan. Penguasa Kaisar Hadrianus membangun kota itu kembali, tapi lebih kecil dari kota sebelumnya, dan tembok selatan dimundurkan ke utara. Hadrianus menamai kota bangunannya itu Aelia Kapitolina. Sejak itu luas Yerusalem tidak mantap. 'Kota Lama', kota di dalam tembok masa kini, dirancang oleh Sultan Suleiman Agung pada abad 16. V. Arti teologis Nama Yerusalem dan Sion sering dipakai untuk seluruh warganya (kendati mereka jauh di pembuangan), seluruh Yehuda, seluruh Israel, atau seluruh umat Tuhan. Yerusalem mempunyai peranan teologis yg sangat penting dalam kedua Perjanjian; dan tidak gampang membedakannya dari seluruh Kanaan sebagai suatu negeri. Ada dua ihwal pokok: Yerusalem adalah sekaligus tempat ketidaksetiaan dan pendurhakaan Yahudi, yg juga adalah tempat pilihan Allah dan hadirat-Nya, perlindungan dan kemuliaan-Nya. Sejarah mencatat bahwa pendurhakaan itu membangkitkan amarah ilahi dan hukuman. Kemuliaan Yerusalem masih tersembunyi tapi akan nyata kelak. (Lih Yes 1:21; 29:1-4; Mat 23:37 dab; Mzm 78:68-69; Yes 37:35; 54:11-17.) Kontras antara yg nyata dan yg ideal dengan wajar menuntun orang pada gagasan 'Yerusalem sorgawi' (bnd Gal 4:25 dab; Ibr 12:22; Why 21). KEPUSTAKAAN. Mengenai sejarah dan arkeologi, lih K. M Kenyon, Digging Up Jerusalem, 1974, dan kepustakaan; Y Yadin (red.) Jerusalem Revealed, 1975; B Mazar, The Mountain of the Lord, 1975; EAEHL 2, hlm 579-647. Mengenai sosial dan ekonomi, lih J Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus, 1969; mengenai teologi, lih TDNT 7, hlm 292-338; W. D Davies, The Gospel and the Land, 1974. DFP/MHS/HAO Ke atas Yerusalem [Kamus Lambang] (1) Di bawah perjanjian yang lama, Yerusalem, sebagai tempat kediaman Allah di tengah-tengah umat-Nya, adalah TIPE gereja. 2 Sam 15:29; 1 Raj 11:13; Mzm 51:20; 137:5; Kid 6:4; Yes 40:9; 52:9; Yer 3:17; Yl 3:17; Za 1:14; Mal 3:4; Gal 4:26; Why 3:12; 21:2, 10, dll. Lihat juga KOTA ALLAH, KOTA YANG KUDUS; SION. (2) LAMBANG dan TIPE gereja palsu, yakni mereka yang mengaku dirinya orang percaya sejati, tapi tidak menyembah Allah dengan cara yang benar. 2 Raj 21:12; 2 Taw 24:18; Yes 1:1; Yer 26:18; Rat 1:8; Yeh 16:2; Gal 4:25, dll. Lihat juga SION. Ke atas Yunani Strongs #2414 Ιεροσολυμα Hierosoluma ιεροσολυμα ierosoluma: Yerusalem (Kamus Yoppi) [neuter] jamak dan [feminin] tunggal dan (Kamus Barclay) Strongs #2415 Ιεροσολυμιτης Hierosolumites ιεροσολυμιτης ierosolumithv: ου [maskulin] orang Yerusalem (Kamus Barclay) Strongs #2419 Ιερουσαλημ Hierousalem ιερουσαλημ ierousalhm: Yerusalem (Kamus Yoppi) [feminin] Yerusalem (Kamus Barclay) Ke atas Yerusalem [Statistik] Jumlah dalam TB : 817 dalam 766 ayat (dalam OT : 671 dalam 624 ayat) (dalam NT : 146 dalam 142 ayat) Strong dalam PL : [<03389> ירושלם ‎639x] [<03390> ירושלם ‎26x] Strong dalam PB : [<2414> Ιεροσολυμα ‎62x] [<2415> Ιεροσολυμιτης ‎2x] [<2419> Ιερουσαλημ ‎76x] Ke atas Peta Peta Google: Yerusalem (31° 46´, 35° 14´); OpenBible: (Flickr/Panoramio) Yerusalem;  Ke atas Dalam Versi-Versi Alkitab: Yerusalem: BIS TB

Jewish Kosher

Kosher - Eating Jewishly The Hebrew word “kosher” literally means “fit.” It has come to refer more broadly to anything that is “above board” or “legit.” The laws of kosher define the foods that are fit for consumption for a Jew. Here are some of the basics of the kosher laws: Certain species of animals (and their eggs and milk) are permitted for consumption, while others are forbidden—notably pork and shellfish. Meat and milk are never combined. Separate utensils are used for each, and a waiting period is observed between eating them. Meat must come from animals that are slaughtered in a specific (and painless) manner known as shechitah, and certain parts of the animal (including the blood) must be removed. Fruits, vegetables and grains are basically always kosher, but must be insect free. Wine or grape juice, however, must be certified kosher. Since even a small trace of a non-kosher substance can render a food not kosher, all processed foods and eating establishments require certification by a reliable rabbi or kashrut supervision agency. Origin and History of Kosher The kosher laws were commanded by G‑d to the children of Israel in the Sinai Desert. Moses taught them to the people and wrote the basics of these laws in Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14. The details were handed down through the generations and eventually written down in the Mishnah and Talmud. Various ordinances were enacted through the generations by the rabbinical authorities as safeguards for these biblical laws. Throughout our 4,000-year history, the observance of kosher has been a hallmark of Jewish identity. Perhaps more than any other mitzvah, the kosher laws emphasize that Judaism is much more than a religion in the conventional sense of the word. To the Jew, holiness is not confined to holy places and times outside the everyday; rather, life in its totality is a sacred endeavor. Even the seemingly mundane activity of eating is a G‑dly act and a uniquely Jewish experience. What Kosher Means A mitzvah is a Divine “commandment” and “connection.” We eat kosher because G‑d commanded us to, and by fulfilling the Divine will we connect to G‑d. Our sages also point out the various advantages of the kosher laws: the health benefits, the humane treatment of animals, their unifying effect on a dispersed people, and their role as shield against assimilation. Additionally, Nachmanides, the great 12th century sage and kabbalist, points out that “the birds and many of the mammals forbidden by the Torah are predators, while the permitted animals are not; we are instructed not to eat those animals, so that we should not absorb these qualities into ourselves.” Kashrut (kosher laws) can thus be seen as “spiritual nutrition.” Just as there are foods that are good for the body and foods that are harmful, there are foods that nourish the Jewish soul and foods that affect it adversely. None of the above, however, is the reason we keep kosher. Rather, we keep kosher because it is the will of the Creator. Which Animals Are Kosher? Mammals: A mammal is kosher if it has split hooves and chews its cud. It must have both kosher signs. Examples: cows, sheep, goats and deer are kosher; pigs, rabbits, squirrels, bears, dogs, cats, camels and horses are not. Fowl: The Torah lists 24 non-kosher bird species—mostly predatory and scavenger birds. Examples of kosher birds are the domestic species of chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and pigeons. Reptiles, amphibians, worms and insects: With the exception of four types of locust, these are not kosher. Fish & Seafood: A water creature is kosher only if it has fins and scales. Examples: salmon, tuna, pike, flounder, carp and herring are kosher; catfish, sturgeon, swordfish, lobster, shellfish, crabs and all water mammals are not. The Slaughter and Butchering of Kosher Meat Kosher mammals and birds are slaughtered by a special procedure called shechitah, in which the animal’s throat is quickly, precisely and painlessly cut with a sharp, perfectly smooth knife (called a chalaf) by a shochet—a highly trained, Torah-observant and G‑d-fearing individual. An animal that dies or is killed by any other means is not kosher. It is also strictly forbidden to eat flesh removed from an animal while it is alive (this prohibition is actually one of the Seven Universal Noahide Laws, and is the only kosher law that applies to non-Jews as well as to Jews). After the slaughtering, the internal organs of cattle are examined for potentially fatal diseases or injuries, such as adhesions (sirchot) in the lungs or holes in the stomach. The occurrence of any one of dozens of specified tereifot, as these defects are called, renders the entire animal not kosher. Nikur (“deveining”) involves removing certain forbidden veins and fats from cattle. They are extremely prevalent in the hindquarters, and due to the complexity involved in their removal, this part of the animal is generally not sold as kosher. Blood Removal The blood of mammals and fowl is utterly forbidden for consumption according to the Torah. Within 72 hours of slaughter, all extractable blood is drained from the meat by a special soaking and salting process. (Today, most kosher meat is sold with the blood already removed.) The liver, which has an especially high blood content, needs to undergo a special broiling process before it can be eaten. Milk, Eggs and Honey A rule of thumb cited by the Talmud is: What comes from a kosher animal is kosher; what comes from a non-kosher animal is not kosher. Thus, milk and eggs are kosher only when they come from kosher animals. In addition, all eggs should be carefully examined before use to ensure that they are free of blood spots. Honey is not considered an animal product, so honey is kosher though bees are not. Separating Milk and Meat Meat and milk are never combined. Separate utensils are used for each, and a waiting period is observed between eating them. Kosher foods are thus divided into three categories: Meat includes the meat or bones of mammals and fowl, soups or gravies made with them, and any food containing even a small quantity of the above. Dairy includes the milk of any kosher animal, all milk products made with it (cream, butter, cheese, etc.), and any food containing even a small quantity of the above. Pareve foods are neither “meat” nor “dairy.” Eggs are pareve, as are all fruits, vegetables and grains. Pareve foods can be mixed with and eaten together with either meat or dairy (fish are parve, but not eaten with meat due to health concerns outlined in the Talmud). Produce Fruits, vegetables and grains are basically always kosher, but they must be insect-free. Produce grown in the Land of Israel has special kashrut requirements. Tithes must be separated from produce before it can be eaten, and special care must be taken since fruit from the first three years following a tree’s planting (orlah) is unfit for consumption, and special laws govern the produce of shemittah, the sabbatical year. Therefore, produce from Israel should be purchased only if it comes with a reliable kosher certificate. Other produce is fine, with some needing bug checking. This can vary by locale and by season, depending on the level of infestation of various crops. Chalav Yisrael (Jewish Milk) The kosher laws stipulate that all dairy products should be chalav Yisrael (lit., “Jewish milk”): a Torah-observant Jew must be present from the milking to the end of the processing to ensure that only milk from kosher animals is used. In certain western countries (including the US) it is illegal to market milk from non-kosher animals as “milk.” Some halachic authorities therefore permit using non-chalav Yisrael milk in places where chalav Yisrael is not obtainable, and to rely on government inspection as sufficient assurance. Others, however, point out that in addition to the technical reasons for the law, there are spiritual reasons for the requirement to use only “Jewish milk.” All agree that it is preferable to use only chalav Yisrael. “Jewish” Food In a series of rabbinical ordinances instituted as a safeguard against intermarriage and assimilation, the sages forbade the consumption of the wine, bread and cooked foods of a non-Jew, even when these do not contain any non-kosher ingredients. Bishul Yisrael (Jewish Cooking) The prohibition of eating food cooked by a non-Jew applies only in the following cases: a) it is a food that cannot be eaten raw; b) it is a respectable food, “fit to be served at a king’s table.” Even foods that do not fall under these categories must contain only kosher ingredients, be prepared on kosher dishes, and comply to all other kosher laws. Pat Yisrael (Jewish Bread) The prohibition of eating non-Jewish bread applies to home-baked bread, not to bread prepared in a commercial bakery. Nevertheless, it is the custom of many communities to use only pat Yisrael (or pas Yisrael, “Jewish bread”) rather than take advantage of this leniency. If a Jew is involved in any part of the baking or cooking process (e.g, turning on the oven), the baked or cooked food is permitted. Sephardic tradition requires the food to actually be placed on the fire by a Jew. Jewish Wine Wine or grape juice must be certified kosher. Because wine was used in the sacred service in the Holy Temple—and because it can be defiled through its use in pagan rites—Torah law requires wine to be produced and handled by Torah-observant Jews. Separate Dishes Even a small trace of a non-kosher substance—as little as 1/60th (1.66 percent) of the food’s volume, and in certain cases, even less than that—will render an otherwise kosher food not kosher. By the same token, utensils that come in contact with hot food will absorb its “taste” and subsequently impart it to other food. For example, a loaf of bread baked in a pan smeared with shortening that contains a small percentage of lard, fruit juice pasteurized in the same machinery as non-kosher milk, or a vegetarian dish prepared in a restaurant kitchen with the same utensils in which a non-kosher dish was cooked earlier—these would all be regarded as non-kosher if the proportion of the non-kosher substance is greater than the permissible percentage. It is for this reason that separate utensils are used for meat and milk, and that a reliable kosher certification is needed for foods processed or prepared outside the home. Even the slightest residue or “taste” of a non-kosher substance will render a food not kosher. So it’s not enough to buy only kosher food. The kitchen, too, must be “kosher,” meaning that all cooking utensils and food preparation surfaces are used exclusively for kosher food, and that separate stoves, pots, cutlery, dishes, counter surfaces and table coverings are used for meat and dairy. A general rule of thumb is that any time hot food comes in contact with another food or a utensil, the food or utensil will absorb its “taste.” Also cold foods and utensils will, under certain circumstances (such as when the food is spicy or salty, is cut with a knife, or it sits in the utensil for an extended period of time), transmit their “taste.” So food prepared in a kitchen or plant in which non-kosher food is also prepared will invariably become non-kosher as well (unless the embedded taste is first extracted from the utensils in a special koshering process). Kosher Certification The intricacies of modern-day food technology make it virtually impossible for anyone but an expert in the field to know whether a processed food is free of any trace of non-kosher ingredients. So all processed foods and eating establishments require certification by a reliable rabbi or kashrut supervision agency. Check the labels of packaged foods and the kashrut certificates of restaurants and hotels for a copyrighted kashrut symbol. On a Spiritual Note Eating Jewishly means, first and foremost, the observance of the kosher dietary laws. But it is also means eating with awareness—awareness of the true Source of our sustenance, and of the purpose of eating. “Know Him in all your ways,” says King Solomon in the book of Proverbs. “All your deeds should be for the sake of Heaven,” says Ethics of the Fathers. The Jew serves G‑d not only with Torah study, prayer and the observance of the mitzvahs, but also with his or her every act, including the seemingly mundane act of eating. There are times when the act of eating is itself a mitzvah—eating matzah on Passover, for example. But even when this is not the case, the Jew does not simply eat; he or she eats “for the sake of Heaven”—with the intent to utilize the energy derived from the food to serve G‑d. The kabbalists teach that when we eat with such mindfulness we elevate the food, redeeming the spark of G‑dliness it contains by fulfilling the purpose for which it was created. Kosher Terms You May Encounter Kosher: (Hebrew) the catch-all term that refers to all that is fit to be consumed or to be used together with kosher food. Treif: (Hebrew) literally, “torn,” referring to an animal that met an unnatural death other than shechitah, but extended to mean any food that is not fit to eat. Parve: (Yiddish) the in-between, neutral foods, which are neither meat nor dairy and may be eaten with both. Fleishig: (Yiddish) meaty. Variants include fleishigs, and fleishige. Milchig: (Yiddish) dairy. Variants include milchige and milchige. Pesachdig: Kosher for Passover (Pesach). Since Passover has its own set of rules, food and dishes that conform to the Passover standards are referred to as Pesachdig or Pesachdik. Kasher: (Yiddish) the act of making something kosher. This can either refer to the salting of meat or to the process of making dishes or appliances kosher through the application of heat. Mashgiach: (Hebrew) supervisor, often appointed by a supervising agency to ensure that food produced at a commercial establishment is kosher. Hashgachah: (Hebrew) Supervision, and the certification thereof, often issued by a rabbi or a rabbinic agency. Hechsher: (Hebrew) Kosher certification, and the actual symbol denoting that a given product is certified kosher. Glatt: (Yiddish). Literally “smooth,” this refers to an animals whose lungs have been found to be superbly healthy and free of adhesions. Since this is a higher standard of kosher, it has come to refer to food that is kosher according to the most exacting of standards. Shechitah: (Hebrew) Kosher slaughter. Shochet: (Hebrew) Trained kosher slaughterer. Chumrah: (Hebrew) Additional stringencies that are beyond the letter of the law, which some communities or individuals may adopt.

613 Mitzvot

The 613 Commandments The Talmud tells us (Tractate Makkot 23b) that there are 613 commandments in the Torah; 248 Positive Commandments (do's) and 365 Negative Commandments (do not's). However, the Talmud does not provide us with a list of these commandments. Several great Jewish scholars have compiled a complete listing of these commandments. Although they all agree on the vast majority of the commandments, they do disagree concerning a number of them. The arguments are for scholastic purposes only, for they do not disagree over any actual commandment whether it is mandatory or forbidden — they only disagree whether certain commandments are independent commandments, or perhaps they are part of another commandment and are not counted on their own. The following list follows the opinion of Maimonides, as he lists them in his magnum opus, the Mishneh Torah. It must be noted that many of these commandments (such as all the commandments associated with sacrifices) are not practicable as long as there is no Temple in Jerusalem. 1. To know there is a G‑d—Exodus 20:2 2. Not to entertain thoughts of other gods besides Him—Exodus 20:3 3. To know that He is one—Deuteronomy 6:4 4. To love Him—Deuteronomy 6:5 5. To fear Him—Deuteronomy 10:20 6. To sanctify His Name—Leviticus 22:32 7. Not to profane His Name—Leviticus 22:32 8. Not to destroy objects associated with His Name—Deuteronomy 12:4 9. To listen to the prophet speaking in His Name—Deuteronomy 18:15 10. Not to test the prophet unduly—Deuteronomy 6:16 11. To emulate His ways—Deuteronomy 28:9 12. To cleave to those who know Him—Deuteronomy 10:20 13. To love other Jews—Leviticus 19:18 14. To love converts—Deuteronomy 10:19 15. Not to hate fellow Jews—Leviticus 19:17 16. To reprove wrongdoers—Leviticus 19:17 17. Not to embarrass others—Leviticus 19:17 18. Not to oppress the weak—Exodus 22:21 19. Not to gossip about others—Leviticus 19:16 20. Not to take revenge—Leviticus 19:18 21. Not to bear a grudge—Leviticus 19:18 22. To learn Torah and teach it—Deuteronomy 6:7 23. To honor those who teach and know Torah—Leviticus 19:32 24. Not to inquire into idolatry—Leviticus 19:4 25. Not to follow the whims of your heart or what your eyes see—Numbers 15:39 26. Not to blaspheme—Exodus 22:27 27. Not to worship idols in the manner they are worshiped—Exodus 20:5 28. Not to bow down to idols—Exodus 20:5 29. Not to make an idol for yourself—Exodus 20:4 30. Not to make an idol for others—Leviticus 19:4 31. Not to make human forms even for decorative purposes—Exodus 20:20 32. Not to turn a city to idolatry—Exodus 23:13 33. To burn a city that has turned to idol worship—Deuteronomy 13:17 34. Not to rebuild it as a city—Deuteronomy 13:17 35. Not to derive benefit from it—Deuteronomy 13:18 36. Not to missionize an individual to idol worship—Deuteronomy 13:12 37. Not to love the missionary—Deuteronomy 13:9 38. Not to cease hating the missionary—Deuteronomy 13:9 39. Not to save the missionary—Deuteronomy 13:9 40. Not to say anything in his defense—Deuteronomy 13:9 41. Not to refrain from incriminating him—Deuteronomy 13:9 42. Not to prophesize in the name of idolatry—Deuteronomy 18:20 43. Not to listen to a false prophet—Deuteronomy 13:4 44. Not to prophesize falsely in the name of G‑d—Deuteronomy 18:20 45. Not to be afraid of killing the false prophet—Deuteronomy 18:22 46. Not to swear in the name of an idol—Exodus 23:13 47. Not to perform Ov (medium)--Leviticus 19:31 48. Not to perform Yidoni (magical seer)--Leviticus 19:31 49. Not to pass your children through the fire to Molech—Leviticus 18:21 50. Not to erect a column in a public place of worship—Deuteronomy 16:22 51. Not to bow down on smooth stone—Leviticus 26:1 52. Not to plant a tree in the Temple courtyard—Deuteronomy 16:21 53. To destroy idols and their accessories—Deuteronomy 12:2 54. Not to derive benefit from idols and their accessories—Deuteronomy 7:26 55. Not to derive benefit from ornaments of idols—Deuteronomy 7:25 56. Not to make a covenant with idolaters—Deuteronomy 7:2 57. Not to show favor to them—Deuteronomy 7:2 58. Not to let them dwell in our land—Exodus 23:33 59. Not to imitate them in customs and clothing—Leviticus 20:23 60. Not to be superstitious—Leviticus 19:26 61. Not to go into a trance to foresee events, etc.--Deuteronomy 18:10 62. Not to engage in astrology—Leviticus 19:26 63. Not to mutter incantations—Deuteronomy 18:11 64. Not to attempt to engage the dead in conversation—Deuteronomy 18:11 65. Not to consult the Ov—Deuteronomy 18:11 66. Not to consult the Yidoni—Deuteronomy 18:11 67. Not to perform acts of magic—Deuteronomy 18:10 68. Men must not shave the hair off the sides of their head—Leviticus 19:27 69. Men must not shave their beards with a razor—Leviticus 19:27 70. Men must not wear women's clothing—Deuteronomy 22:5 71. Women must not wear men's clothing—Deuteronomy 22:5 72. Not to tattoo the skin—Leviticus 19:28 73. Not to tear the skin in mourning—Deuteronomy 14:1 74. Not to make a bald spot in mourning—Deuteronomy 14:1 75. To repent and confess wrongdoings—Numbers 5:7 76. To say the Shema twice daily—Deuteronomy 6:7 77. To serve the Almighty with prayer daily—Exodus 23:25 78. The Kohanim must bless the Jewish nation daily—Numbers 6:23 79. To wear Tefillin on the head—Deuteronomy 6:8 80. To bind tefillin on the arm—Deuteronomy 6:8 81. To put a Mezuzah on each door post—Deuteronomy 6:9 82. To write a Sefer Torah—Deuteronomy 31:19 83. The king must have a separate Sefer Torah for himself—Deuteronomy 17:18 84. To have Tzitzit on four-cornered garments—Numbers 15:38 85. To bless the Almighty after eating—Deuteronomy 8:10 86. To circumcise all males on the eighth day after their birth—Leviticus 12:3 87. To rest on the seventh day—Exodus 23:12 88. Not to do prohibited labor on the seventh day—Exodus 20:10 89. The court must not inflict punishment on Shabbat—Exodus 35:3 90. Not to walk more than 2000 cubits outside the city boundary on Shabbat—Exodus 16:29 91. To sanctify the day with Kiddush and Havdalah—Exodus 20:8 92. To rest from prohibited labor on Yom Kippur—Leviticus 23:32 93. Not to do prohibited labor on Yom Kippur—Leviticus 23:31 94. To afflict yourself on Yom Kippur—Leviticus 16:29 95. Not to eat or drink on Yom Kippur—Leviticus 23:29 96. To rest on the first day of Passover—Leviticus 23:8 97. Not to do prohibited labor on the first day of Passover—Leviticus 23:8 98. To rest on the seventh day of Passover—Leviticus 23:8 99. Not to do prohibited labor on the seventh day of Passover—Leviticus 23:8 100. To rest on Shavuot—Leviticus 23:21 101. Not to do prohibited labor on Shavuot—Leviticus 23:21 102. To rest on Rosh Hashanah—Leviticus 23:24 103. Not to do prohibited labor on Rosh Hashanah—Leviticus 23:25 104. To rest on Sukkot—Leviticus 23:35 105. Not to do prohibited labor on Sukkot—Leviticus 23:35 106. To rest on Shemini Atzeret—Leviticus 23:36 107. Not to do prohibited labor on Shemini Atzeret—Leviticus 23:36 108. Not to eat Chametz on the afternoon of the 14th day of Nissan—Deuteronomy 16:3 109. To destroy all Chametz on 14th day of Nissan—Exodus 12:15 110. Not to eat Chametz all seven days of Passover—Exodus 13:3 111. Not to eat mixtures containing Chametz all seven days of Passover—Exodus 12:20 112. Chametz should not be seen in your domain seven days—Exodus 13:7 113. Chametz should not be found in your domain seven days—Exodus 12:19 114. To eat Matzah on the first night of Passover—Exodus 12:18 115. To relate the Exodus from Egypt on that night—Exodus 13:8 116. To hear the Shofar on the first day of Tishrei (Rosh Hashanah)--Numbers 29:1 117. To dwell in a Sukkah for the seven days of Sukkot—Leviticus 23:42 118. To take up a Lulav and Etrog all seven days of Sukkot—Leviticus 23:40 119. Each man must give a half shekel annually—Exodus 30:13 120. Courts must calculate to determine when a new month begins—Exodus 12:2 121. To afflict and cry out before G‑d in times of catastrophe—Numbers 10:9 122. To marry a wife by the means prescribed in the Torah (kiddushin)--Deuteronomy 24:1 123. Not to have relations with women not thus married—Deuteronomy 23:18 124. Not to withhold food, clothing, and sexual relations from your wife—Exodus 21:10 125. To have children with one's wife—Genesis 1:28 126. To issue a divorce by means of a Get document—Deuteronomy 24:1 127. A man must not remarry his wife after she has married someone else—Deuteronomy 24:4 128. To do Yibum (marry childless brother's widow)--Deuteronomy 25:5 129. To do Chalitzah (freeing a widow from yibum)--Deuteronomy 25:9 130. The widow must not remarry until the ties with her brother-in-law are removed—Deuteronomy 25:5 131. The court must fine one who seduces a maiden—Exodus 22:15-16 132. The rapist must marry the maiden (if she chooses)--Deuteronomy 22:29 133. He is not allowed to divorce her—Deuteronomy 22:29 134. The slanderer must remain married to the wife he slandered—Deuteronomy 22:19 135. He must not divorce her—Deuteronomy 22:19 136. To fulfill the laws of the woman suspected of adultery (Sotah)--Numbers 5:30 137. Not to put oil on her meal offering—Numbers 5:15 138. Not to put frankincense on her Meal Offering—Numbers 5:15 139. Not to have sexual relations with your mother—Leviticus 18:7 140. Not to have sexual relations with your father's wife—Leviticus 18:8 141. Not to have sexual relations with your sister—Leviticus 18:9 142. Not to have sexual relations with your father's wife's daughter (from your father)--Leviticus 18:11 143. Not to have sexual relations with your son's daughter—Leviticus 18:10 144. Not to have sexual relations with your daughter—Leviticus 18:10 145. Not to have sexual relations with your daughter's daughter—Leviticus 18:10 146. Not to marry a woman and her daughter—Leviticus 18:17 147. Not to marry a woman and her son's daughter—Leviticus 18:17 148. Not to marry a woman and her daughter's daughter—Leviticus 18:17 149. Not to have sexual relations with your father's sister—Leviticus 18:12 150. Not to have sexual relations with your mother's sister—Leviticus 18:13 151. Not to have sexual relations with your father's brother's wife—Leviticus 18:14 152. Not to have sexual relations with your son's wife—Leviticus 18:15 153. Not to have sexual relations with your brother's wife—Leviticus 18:16 154. Not to have sexual relations with your wife's sister—Leviticus 18:18 155. A man must not have sexual relations with a beast—Leviticus 18:23 156. A woman must not have sexual relations with a beast—Leviticus 18:23 157. Not to have homosexual sexual relations—Leviticus 18:22 158. Not to have homosexual sexual relations with your father—Leviticus 18:7 159. Not to have homosexual sexual relations with your father's brother—Leviticus 18:14 160. Not to have sexual relations with a married woman—Leviticus 18:20 161. Not to have sexual relations with a menstrually impure woman—Leviticus 18:19 162. Not to marry non-Jews—Deuteronomy 7:3 163. Not to let Moabite and Ammonite males marry into the Jewish people—Deuteronomy 23:4 164. Don't keep a third generation Egyptian convert from marrying into the Jewish  people—Deuteronomy 23:8-9 165. Not to refrain from marrying a third generation Edomite convert—Deuteronomy 23:8-9 166. Not to let a Mamzer ("bastard") marry into the Jewish people—Deuteronomy 23:3 167. Not to let a eunuch marry into the Jewish people—Deuteronomy 23:2 168. Not to castrate any male (including animals)--Leviticus 22:24 169. The High Priest must not marry a widow—Leviticus 21:14 170. The High Priest must not have sexual relations with a widow even outside of marriage—Leviticus 21:14 171. The High Priest must marry a virgin maiden—Leviticus 21:13 172. A Kohen must not marry a divorcee—Leviticus 21:7 173. A Kohen must not marry a zonah (a woman who had forbidden relations)--Leviticus 21:7 174. A Kohen must not marry a chalalah (party to or product of 169-172)--Leviticus 21:7 175. Not to make pleasurable (sexual) contact with any forbidden woman—Leviticus 18:6 176. To examine the signs of animals to distinguish between Kosher and non-kosher—Leviticus 11:2 177. To examine the signs of fowl to distinguish between kosher and non-kosher—Deuteronomy 14:11 178. To examine the signs of fish to distinguish between kosher and non-kosher—Leviticus 11:9 179. To examine the signs of locusts to distinguish between kosher and non-kosher—Leviticus 11:21 180. Not to eat non-kosher animals—Leviticus 11:4 181. Not to eat non-kosher fowl—Leviticus 11:13 182. Not to eat non-kosher fish—Leviticus 11:11 183. Not to eat non-kosher flying insects—Deuteronomy 14:19 184. Not to eat non-kosher creatures that crawl on land—Leviticus 11:41 185. Not to eat non-kosher maggots—Leviticus 11:44 186. Not to eat worms found in fruit once they have left the fruit—Leviticus 11:42 187. Not to eat creatures that live in water other than fish—Leviticus 11:43 188. Not to eat the meat of an animal that died without ritual slaughter—Deuteronomy 14:21 189. Not to benefit from an beast condemned to be stoned—Exodus 21:28 190. Not to eat meat of an animal that was mortally wounded—Exodus 22:30 191. Not to eat a limb torn off a living creature—Deuteronomy 12:23 192. Not to eat blood—Leviticus 3:17 193. Not to eat certain fats of kosher animals—Leviticus 3:17 194. Not to eat the sinew of the thigh—Genesis. 32:33 195. Not to eat meat and milk cooked together—Exodus 23:19 196. Not to cook meat and milk together—Exodus 34:26 197. Not to eat bread from new grain before the Omer—Leviticus 23:14 198. Not to eat parched grains from new grain before the Omer—Leviticus 23:14 199. Not to eat ripened grains from new grain before the Omer—Leviticus 23:14 200. Not to eat fruit of a tree during its first three years—Leviticus 19:23 201. Not to eat diverse seeds planted in a vineyard—Deuteronomy 22:9 202. Not to eat untithed fruits—Leviticus 22:15 203. Not to drink wine poured in service to idols—Deuteronomy 32:38 204. To ritually slaughter an animal before eating it—Deuteronomy 12:21 205. Not to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day—Leviticus 22:28 206. To cover the blood (of a slaughtered beast or fowl) with earth—Leviticus 17:13 207. Not to take the mother bird from her children—Deuteronomy 22:6 208. To release the mother bird before taking the children—Deuteronomy 22:7 209. Not to swear falsely in G‑d's Name—Leviticus 19:12 210. Not to take G‑d's Name in vain—Exodus 20:7 211. Not to deny possession of something entrusted to you—Leviticus 19:11 212. Not to swear falsely in denial of a monetary claim—Leviticus 19:11 213. To swear in G‑d's Name to confirm the truth when deemed necessary by court—Deuteronomy 10:20 214. To fulfill what was uttered and to do what was avowed—Deuteronomy 23:24 215. Not to break oaths or vows—Numbers 30:3 216. For oaths and vows annulled, there are the laws of annulling vows explicit in the Torah—Numbers 30:3 217. The Nazir must let his hair grow—Numbers 6:5 218. He must not cut his hair—Numbers 6:5 219. He must not drink wine, wine mixtures, or wine vinegar—Numbers 6:3 220. He must not eat fresh grapes—Numbers 6:3 221. He must not eat raisins—Numbers 6:3 222. He must not eat grape seeds—Numbers 6:4 223. He must not eat grape skins—Numbers 6:4 224. He must not be under the same roof as a corpse—Numbers 6:6 225. He must not come into contact with the dead—Numbers 6:7 226. He must shave after bringing sacrifices upon completion of his Nazirite period—Numbers 6:18 227. To estimate the value of people (when someone pledges a person's worth) as determined by the Torah—Leviticus 27:2 228. To estimate the value of consecrated animals—Leviticus 27:12-13 229. To estimate the value of consecrated houses—Leviticus 27:14 230. To estimate the value of consecrated fields—Leviticus 27:16 231. Carry out the laws of interdicting possessions (cherem)--Leviticus 27:28 232. Not to sell the cherem—Leviticus 27:28 233. Not to redeem the cherem—Leviticus 27:28 234. Not to plant diverse seeds together—Leviticus 19:19 235. Not to plant grains or greens in a vineyard—Deuteronomy 22:9 236. Not to crossbreed animals—Leviticus 19:19 237. Not to work different animals together—Deuteronomy 22:10 238. Not to wear Shatnez, a cloth woven of wool and linen—Deuteronomy 22:11 239. To leave a corner of the field uncut for the poor—Leviticus 19:10 240. Not to reap that corner—Leviticus 19:9 241. To leave gleanings for The poor—Leviticus 19:9 242. Not to gather the gleanings—Leviticus 19:9 243. To leave the gleanings of a vineyard—Leviticus 19:10 244. Not to gather the gleanings of a vineyard—Leviticus 19:10 245. To leave the unformed clusters of grapes for the poor—Leviticus 19:10 246. Not to pick the unformed clusters of grapes—Leviticus 19:10 247. To leave the forgotten sheaves in the field for the poor—Deuteronomy 24:19 248. Not to retrieve them—Deuteronomy 24:19 249. To separate the tithe for the poor—Deuteronomy 14:28 250. To give charity—Deuteronomy 15:11 251. Not to withhold charity from the poor—Deuteronomy 15:7 252. To set aside Terumah Gedolah (tithe for the Kohen)--Deuteronomy 18:4 253. The Levite must set aside a tenth of his tithe for the Kohen—Numbers 18:26 254. Not to improperly preface one tithe to the next, but separate them in their proper order—Exodus 22:28 255. A non-Kohen must not eat Terumah—Leviticus 22:10 256. A hired worker or a Jewish bondsman of a Kohen must not eat Terumah—Leviticus 22:10 257. An uncircumcised Kohen must not eat Terumah—Exodus 12:48 258. An impure Kohen must not eat Terumah—Leviticus 22:4 259. A chalalah [see Mitzvah 174] must not eat Terumah—Leviticus 22:12 260. To set aside Ma'aser (tithe) each planting year and give it to a Levite—Numbers 18:24 261. To set aside the Second Tithe (which is to be eaten in Jerusalem)--Deuteronomy 14:22 262. Not to spend its redemption money on anything but food, drink, or ointment—Deuteronomy 26:14 263. Not to eat the Second Tithe while impure—Deuteronomy 26:14 264. A mourner on the first day after death must not eat the Second Tithe —Deuteronomy 26:14 265. Not to eat Second Tithe grains outside Jerusalem—Deuteronomy 12:17 266. Not to eat Second Tithe wine products outside Jerusalem—Deuteronomy 12:17 267. Not to eat Second Tithe oil outside Jerusalem—Deuteronomy 12:17 268. The fourth year crops must be totally for holy purposes like the Second Tithe—Leviticus 19:24 269. To read the confession of tithes every fourth and seventh year—Deuteronomy 26:13 270. To set aside the first fruits and bring them to the Temple—Exodus 23:19 271. The Kohanim must not eat the first fruits outside Jerusalem—Deuteronomy 12:17 272. To read the Torah Portion pertaining to their presentation—Deuteronomy 26:5 273. To set aside a portion of dough for a Kohen—Numbers 15:20 274. To give the shoulder, two cheeks, and stomach of slaughtered animals to a Kohen—Deuteronomy 18:3 275. To give the first sheering of sheep to a Kohen—Deuteronomy 18:4 276. To redeem the firstborn sons and give the money to a Kohen—Numbers 18:15 277. To redeem the firstborn donkey by giving a lamb to a Kohen—Exodus 13:13 278. To break the neck of the donkey if the owner does not intend to redeem it—Exodus 13:13 279. To rest the land during the seventh year by not doing any work which enhances growth—Exodus 34:21 280. Not to work the land during the seventh year—Leviticus 25:4 281. Not to work with trees to produce fruit during that year—Leviticus 25:4 282. Not to reap crops that grow wild that year in the normal manner—Leviticus 25:5 283. Not to gather grapes which grow wild that year in the normal way—Leviticus 25:5 284. To leave free all produce which grew in that year—Exodus 23:11 285. To release all loans during the seventh year—Deuteronomy 15:3 286. Not to pressure or claim from the borrower—Deuteronomy 15:2 287. Not to refrain from lending immediately before the release of the loans for fear of monetary loss—Deuteronomy 15:9 288. The Sanhedrin must count seven groups of seven years—Leviticus 25:8 289. The Sanhedrin must sanctify the fiftieth (Jubilee) year—Leviticus 25:10 290. To blow the Shofar on the tenth of Tishrei (Yom Kippur of the Jubilee year) to free the slaves—Leviticus 25:9 291. Not to work the soil during the fiftieth year—Leviticus 25:11 292. Not to reap in the normal manner that which grows wild in the fiftieth year—Leviticus 25:11 293. Not to pick grapes which grew wild in the normal manner in the fiftieth year—Leviticus 25:11 294. Carry out the laws of sold family properties—Leviticus 25:24 295. Not to sell the land in Israel indefinitely—Leviticus 25:23 296. Carry out the laws of houses in walled cities—Leviticus 25:29 297. The Tribe of Levi must not be given a portion of the land in Israel, rather they are given cities to dwell in—Deuteronomy 18:2 298. The Levites must not take a share in the spoils of war—Deuteronomy 18:1 299. To give the Levites cities to inhabit and their surrounding fields—Numbers 35:2 300. Not to sell the fields but they shall remain the Levites' before and after the Jubilee year—Leviticus 25:34 301. To build a Sanctuary (Holy Temple)--Exodus 25:8 302. Not to build the altar with stones hewn by metal—Exodus 20:22 303. Not to climb steps to the altar—Exodus 20:23 304. To show reverence for the Temple—Leviticus 19:30 305. To guard the Temple area—Numbers 18:3 306. Not to leave the Temple unguarded—Numbers 18:5 307. To prepare the anointing oil—Exodus 30:31 308. Not to reproduce the anointing oil (for personal use)--Exodus 30:32 309. Not to anoint with anointing oil (a non-Kohen or non-king)--Exodus 30:32 310. Not to reproduce the incense formula (for personal use)--Exodus 30:37 311. Not to burn anything on the Golden Altar besides incense—Exodus 30:9 312. The Levites must transport the ark on their shoulders—Numbers 7:9 313. Not to remove the staves from the ark—Exodus 25:15 314. The Levites must work in the Temple—Numbers 18:23 315. No Levite must do another's work of either a Kohen or a Levite—Numbers 18:3 316. To dedicate the Kohen for service—Leviticus 21:8 317. The Kohen work shifts must be equal during holidays—Deuteronomy 18:6-8 318. The Kohanim must wear their priestly garments during service—Exodus 28:2 319. Not to tear the priestly garments—Exodus 28:32 320. The High Priest's breastplate must not be loosened from the Efod (priestly apron)--Exodus 28:28 321. A Kohen must not enter the Temple intoxicated—Leviticus 10:9 322. A Kohen must not enter the Temple with long hair—Leviticus 10:6 323. A Kohen must not enter the Temple with torn clothes—Leviticus 10:6 324. A Kohen must not enter the sanctuary of the Temple indiscriminately—Leviticus 16:2 325. A Kohen must not leave the Temple during service—Leviticus 10:7 326. To send the impure from the Temple—Numbers 5:2 327. Impure people must not enter the Temple—Numbers 5:3 328. [Certain] impure people must not enter [even] the Temple Mount area—Deuteronomy 23:11 329. Impure Kohanim must not do service in the temple—Leviticus 22:2 330. An impure Kohen, following immersion, must wait until after sundown before returning to service—Leviticus 21:6 331. A Kohen must wash his hands and feet before service—Exodus 30:19 332. A Kohen with a physical blemish must not enter the sanctuary or approach the altar—Leviticus 21:23 333. A Kohen with a physical blemish must not serve—Leviticus 21:17 334. A Kohen with a temporary blemish must not serve—Leviticus 21:18 335. One who is not a Kohen must not serve—Numbers 18:4 336. To offer only unblemished animals—Leviticus 22:21 337. Not to dedicate a blemished animal for the altar—Leviticus 22:20 338. Not to slaughter it—Leviticus 22:22 339. Not to sprinkle its blood—Leviticus 22:24 340. Not to burn its fat—Leviticus 22:22 341. Not to offer a temporarily blemished animal—Deuteronomy 17:1 342. Not to sacrifice blemished animals even if offered by non-Jews—Leviticus 22:25 343. Not to inflict wounds upon dedicated animals—Leviticus 22:21 344. To redeem dedicated animals which have become disqualified—Deuteronomy 12:15 345. To offer only animals which are at least eight days old—Leviticus 22:27 346. Not to offer animals bought with the wages of a harlot or the animal exchanged for a dog—Deuteronomy 23:19 347. Not to burn honey or yeast on the altar—Leviticus 2:11 348. To salt all sacrifices—Leviticus 2:13 349. Not to omit the salt from sacrifices—Leviticus 2:13 350. Carry out the procedure of the burnt offering as prescribed in the Torah—Leviticus 1:3 351. Not to eat its meat—Deuteronomy 12:17 352. Carry out the procedure of the sin offering—Leviticus 6:18 353. Not to eat the meat of the inner sin offering—Leviticus 6:23 354. Not to decapitate a fowl brought as a sin offering—Leviticus 5:8 355. Carry out the procedure of the guilt offering—Leviticus 7:1 356. The Kohanim must eat the sacrificial meat in the Temple—Exodus 29:33 357. The Kohanim must not eat the meat outside the Temple courtyard—Deuteronomy 12:17 358. A non-Kohen must not eat [certain] sacrificial meats—Exodus 29:33 359. To follow the procedure of the peace offering—Leviticus 7:11 360. Not to eat the meat of minor sacrifices before sprinkling the blood—Deuteronomy 12:17 361. To bring meal offerings as prescribed in the Torah—Leviticus 2:1 362. Not to put oil on the meal offerings of wrongdoers—Leviticus 5:11 363. Not to put frankincense on the meal offerings of wrongdoers—Leviticus 5:11 364. The meal offering of a Priest should not be eaten—Leviticus 6:16 365. Not to bake a meal offering as leavened bread—Leviticus 6:10 366. The Kohanim must eat the remains of the meal offerings—Leviticus 6:9 367. To bring all avowed and freewill offerings to the Temple on the first subsequent festival—Deuteronomy 12:5-6 368. Not to withhold payment incurred by any vow—Deuteronomy 23:22 369. To offer all sacrifices in the Temple—Deuteronomy 12:11 370. To bring all sacrifices from outside Israel to the Temple—Deuteronomy 12:26 371. Not to slaughter sacrifices outside the courtyard—Leviticus 17:4 372. Not to offer any sacrifices outside the courtyard—Deuteronomy 12:13 373. To offer two lambs every day—Numbers 28:3 374. To light a fire on the altar every day—Leviticus 6:5 375. Not to extinguish this fire—Leviticus 6:5 376. To remove the ashes from the altar every day—Leviticus 6:3 377. To burn incense every day—Exodus 30:7 378. To light the Menorah every day—Exodus 27:21 379. The High Priest must bring a meal offering every day—Leviticus 6:13 380. To bring two additional lambs as burnt offerings on Shabbat—Numbers 28:9 381. To make the show bread—Exodus 25:30 382. To bring additional offerings on the New Month (Rosh Chodesh)--Numbers 28:11 383. To bring additional offerings on Passover—Numbers 28:19 384. To offer the wave offering from the meal of the new wheat (on the 2nd day of Passover)--Leviticus 23:10 385. Each man must count the Omer — seven weeks from the day the new wheat offering was brought—Leviticus 23:15 386. To bring additional offerings on Shavuot—Numbers 28:26 387. To bring two loaves to accompany the above sacrifice—Leviticus 23:18 388. To bring additional offerings on Rosh Hashanah—Numbers 29:2 389. To bring additional offerings on Yom Kippur—Numbers 29:8 390. To bring additional offerings on Sukkot—Numbers 29:13 391. To bring additional offerings on Shmini Atzeret—Numbers 29:35 392. Not to eat sacrifices which have become unfit or blemished—Deuteronomy 14:3 393. Not to eat from sacrifices offered with improper intentions—Leviticus 7:18 394. Not to leave sacrifices past the time allowed for eating them—Leviticus 22:30 395. Not to eat from that which was left over—Leviticus 19:8 396. Not to eat from sacrifices which became impure—Leviticus 7:19 397. An impure person must not eat from sacrifices—Leviticus 7:20 398. To burn the leftover sacrifices—Leviticus 7:17 399. To burn all impure sacrifices—Leviticus 7:19 400. To follow the procedure of Yom Kippur in the sequence prescribed in the Torah—Leviticus 16:3 401. One who profaned holy property must repay what he profaned plus a fifth and bring a sacrifice—Leviticus 5:16 402. Not to work consecrated animals—Deuteronomy 15:19 403. Not to shear the fleece of consecrated animals—Deuteronomy 15:19 404. To slaughter the Paschal sacrifice at the specified time—Exodus 12:6 405. Not to slaughter it while in possession of leaven—Exodus 23:18 406. Not to leave the fat overnight—Exodus 23:18 407. To slaughter the second Paschal Lamb—Numbers 9:11 408. To eat the Paschal Lamb with Matzah and Maror on the night of the 15th of Nissan—Exodus 12:8 409. To eat the second Paschal Lamb on the night of the 15th of Iyar—Numbers 9:11 410. Not to eat the Paschal meat raw or boiled—Exodus 12:9 411. Not to take the Paschal meat from the confines of its group—Exodus 12:46 412. An apostate must not eat from it—Exodus 12:43 413. A permanent or temporary [non-Jewish] hired worker must not eat from it—Exodus 12:45 414. An uncircumcised male must not eat from it—Exodus 12:48 415. Not to break any bones from the Paschal offering—Exodus 12:46 416. Not to break any bones from the second Paschal offering—Numbers 9:12 417. Not to leave any meat from the Paschal offering over until morning—Exodus 12:10 418. Not to leave the second Paschal meat over until morning—Numbers 9:12 419. Not to leave the meat of the holiday offering of the 14th until the 16th—Deuteronomy 16:4 420. To be seen at the Temple on Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot—Deuteronomy 16:16 421. To celebrate on these three Festivals (by bringing a offering)--Exodus 23:14 422. To rejoice on these three Festivals—Deuteronomy 16:14 423. Not to appear at the Temple without offerings—Deuteronomy 16:16 424. Not to refrain from rejoicing with, and giving gifts to, the Levites—Deuteronomy 12:19 425. To assemble all the people on the Sukkot following the seventh year [the king publicly reads portions of the Torah]--Deuteronomy 31:12 426. To set aside the firstborn animals [to be eaten by the Kohanim, and sacrificed unless they are blemished]--Exodus 13:12 427. The Kohanim must not eat unblemished firstborn animals outside Jerusalem—Deuteronomy 12:17 428. Not to redeem the firstborn—Numbers 18:17 429. Separate the tithe from animals [to be eaten by the Kohanim, and sacrificed unless they are blemished]--Leviticus 27:32 430. Not to redeem the tithe—Leviticus 27:33 431. Every person must bring a sin offering for his transgression—Leviticus 4:27 432. Bring an asham talui offering when uncertain of guilt—Leviticus 5:17-18 433. Bring an asham vadai offering [for certain sins] when guilt is ascertained—Leviticus 5:25 434. Bring an oleh v'yored offering (if the person is wealthy, an animal; if poor, a bird or meal offering) [for certain sins]--Leviticus 5:7-11 435. The Sanhedrin must bring an offering when it rules in error—Leviticus 4:13 436. A woman who had a running issue must bring an offering after she goes to the Mikvah—Leviticus 15:28-29 437. A woman who gave birth must bring an offering after she goes to the Mikvah—Leviticus 12:6 438. A man who had a running issue must bring an offering after he goes to the Mikvah—Leviticus 15:13-14 439. A metzora ("leprous" person — see According to the Torah is Leprosy a hygienic problem or is it something spiritual and miraculous?) must bring an offering after going to the Mikvah—Leviticus 14:10 440. Not to substitute another beast for one set apart for sacrifice—Leviticus 27:10 441. The new animal, in addition to the substituted one, retains consecration—Leviticus 27:10 442. Not to change consecrated animals from one type of offering to another—Leviticus 27:26 443. Carry out the laws of impurity of the dead—Numbers 19:14 444. Carry out the procedure of the Red Heifer—Numbers 19:9 445. Carry out the laws of the sprinkling water [of the Red Heifer]--Numbers 19:21 446. Rule the laws of human tzara'at (Leprosy, see Mitzvah 439) as prescribed in the Torah—Leviticus 13:12 447. The metzora (leper) must not remove his signs of impurity—Deuteronomy 24:8 448. The metzora must not shave signs of impurity in his hair—Leviticus 13:33 449. The metzora must publicize his condition by tearing his garments, allowing his hair to grow and covering his mustache—Leviticus 13:45 450. Carry out the prescribed rules for purifying the metzora—Leviticus 14:2 451. The metzora must shave off all his hair prior to purification—Leviticus 14:9 452. Carry out the laws of "leprous" clothing—Leviticus 13:47 453. Carry out the laws of leprous houses—Leviticus 14:35 454. Observe the laws of menstrual impurity—Leviticus 15:19 455. Observe the laws of impurity caused by childbirth—Leviticus 12:2 456. Observe the laws of impurity caused by a woman's running issue—Leviticus 15:25 457. Observe the laws of impurity caused by a man's running issue (irregular ejaculation of infected semen)--Leviticus 15:3 458. Observe the laws of impurity caused by a dead beast—Leviticus 11:39 459. Observe the laws of impurity caused by the eight shratzim (rodents, amphibious creatures, and lizards) [specified in the Torah]--Leviticus 11:29 460. Observe the laws of impurity of a seminal emission (regular ejaculation, with normal semen)--Leviticus 15:16 461. Observe the laws of impurity concerning liquid and solid foods—Leviticus 11:34 462. Every impure person must immerse himself in a Mikvah to become pure—Leviticus 15:16 463. The court must judge the damages incurred by a goring beast—Exodus 21:28 464. The court must judge the damages incurred by an animal eating—Exodus 22:4 465. The court must judge the damages incurred by a pit—Exodus 21:33 466. The court must judge the damages incurred by fire—Exodus 22:5 467. Not to steal money stealthily—Leviticus 19:11 468. The court must implement punitive measures against the thief—Exodus 21:37 469. Each individual must ensure that his scales and weights are accurate—Leviticus 19:36 470. Not to commit injustice with scales and weights—Leviticus 19:35 471. Not to possess inaccurate scales and weights even if they are not for use—Deuteronomy 25:13 472. Not to move a boundary marker to steal someone's property—Deuteronomy 19:14 473. Not to kidnap—Exodus 20:13 474. Not to rob openly—Leviticus 19:13 475. Not to withhold wages or fail to repay a debt—Leviticus 19:13 476. Not to covet and scheme to acquire another's possession—Exodus 20:14 477. Not to desire another's possession—Deuteronomy 5:18 478. Return the robbed object or its value—Leviticus 5:23 479. Not to ignore a lost object—Deuteronomy 22:3 480. Return the lost object—Deuteronomy 22:1 481. The court must implement laws against the one who assaults another or damages another's property—Exodus 21:18 482. Not to murder—Exodus 20:13 483. Not to accept monetary restitution to atone for the murderer—Numbers 35:31 484. The court must send the accidental murderer to a city of refuge—Numbers 35:25 485. Not to accept monetary restitution instead of being sent to a city of refuge—Numbers 35:32 486. Not to kill the murderer before he stands trial—Numbers 35:12 487. Save someone being pursued even by taking the life of the pursuer—Deuteronomy 25:12 488. Not to pity the pursuer—Numbers 35:12 489. Not to stand idly by if someone's life is in danger—Leviticus 19:16 490. Designate cities of refuge and prepare routes of access—Deuteronomy 19:3 491. Break the neck of a calf by a stream following an unsolved murder—Deuteronomy 21:4 492. To neither work nor plant that river valley—Deuteronomy 21:4 493. Not to allow pitfalls and obstacles to remain on your property—Deuteronomy 22:8 494. Make a guard rail around flat roofs—Deuteronomy 22:8 495. Not to put a stumbling block before a blind man (nor give harmful advice)--Leviticus 19:14 496. Help another remove the load from a beast which can no longer carry it—Exodus 23:5 497. Help others load their beast—Deuteronomy 22:4 498. Not to leave others distraught with their burdens (but to help either load or unload)--Deuteronomy 22:4 499. Buy and sell according to Torah law—Leviticus 25:14 500. Not to overcharge or underpay for an article—Leviticus 25:14 501. Not to insult or harm anybody with words—Leviticus 25:17 502. Not to cheat a sincere convert monetarily—Exodus 22:20 503. Not to insult or harm a sincere convert with words—Exodus 22:20 504. Purchase a Hebrew slave in accordance with the prescribed laws—Exodus 21:2 505. Not to sell him as a slave is sold—Leviticus 25:42 506. Not to work him oppressively—Leviticus 25:43 507. Not to allow a non-Jew to work him oppressively—Leviticus 25:53 508. Not to have him do menial slave labor—Leviticus 25:39 509. Give him gifts when he goes free—Deuteronomy 15:14 510. Not to send him away empty-handed—Deuteronomy 15:13 511. Redeem Jewish maidservants—Exodus 21:8 512. Betroth the Jewish maidservant—Exodus 21:8 513. The master must not sell his maidservant—Exodus 21:8 514. Canaanite slaves must work forever unless the owner amputates one of their limbs—Leviticus 25:46 515. Not to extradite a slave who fled to (Biblical) Israel—Deuteronomy 23:16 516. Not to wrong a slave who has come to Israel for refuge—Deuteronomy 23:17 517. The courts must carry out the laws of a hired worker and hired guard—Exodus 22:9 518. Pay wages on the day they were earned—Deuteronomy 24:15 519. Not to delay payment of wages past the agreed time—Leviticus 19:13 520. The hired worker may eat from the unharvested crops where he works—Deuteronomy 23:25 521. The worker must not eat while on hired time—Deuteronomy 23:26 522. The worker must not take more than he can eat—Deuteronomy 23:25 523. Not to muzzle an ox while plowing—Deuteronomy 25:4 524. The courts must carry out the laws of a borrower—Exodus 22:13 525. The courts must carry out the laws of an unpaid guard—Exodus 22:6 526. Lend to the poor and destitute—Exodus 22:24 527. Not to press them for payment if you know they don't have it—Exodus 22:24 528. Press the idolater for payment—Deuteronomy 15:3 529. The creditor must not forcibly take collateral—Deuteronomy 24:10 530. Return the collateral to the debtor when needed—Deuteronomy 24:13 531. Not to delay its return when needed—Deuteronomy 24:12 532. Not to demand collateral from a widow—Deuteronomy 24:17 533. Not to demand as collateral utensils needed for preparing food—Deuteronomy 24:6 534. Not to lend with interest—Leviticus 25:37 535. Not to borrow with interest—Deuteronomy 23:20 536. Not to intermediate in an interest loan, guarantee, witness, or write the promissory note—Exodus 22:24 537. Lend to and borrow from idolaters with interest—Deuteronomy 23:21 538. The courts must carry out the laws of the plaintiff, admitter, or denier—Exodus 22:8 539. Carry out the laws of the order of inheritance—Numbers 27:8 540. Appoint judges—Deuteronomy 16:18 541. Not to appoint judges who are not familiar with judicial procedure—Deuteronomy 1:17 542. Decide by majority in case of disagreement—Exodus 23:2 543. [In capital cases] the court must not execute through a majority of one; at least a majority of two is required—Exodus 23:2 544. A judge who presented an acquittal plea must not present an argument for conviction in capital cases—Exodus 23:2 545. The courts must carry out the death penalty of stoning—Deuteronomy 22:24 546. The courts must carry out the death penalty of burning—Leviticus 20:14 547. The courts must carry out the death penalty of the sword—Exodus 21:20 548. The courts must carry out the death penalty of strangulation—Leviticus 20:10 549. The courts must hang those stoned for blasphemy or idolatry—Deuteronomy 21:22 550. Bury the executed [as well as all deceased] on the day they are killed—Deuteronomy 21:23 551. Not to delay burial overnight—Deuteronomy 21:23 552. The court must not let the sorcerer live—Exodus 22:17 553. The court must give lashes to the wrongdoer—Deuteronomy 25:2 554. The court must not exceed the prescribed number of lashes—Deuteronomy 25:3 555. The court must not kill anybody on circumstantial evidence—Exodus 23:7 556. The court must not punish anybody who was forced to do a crime—Deuteronomy 22:26 557. A judge must not pity the murderer or assaulter at the trial—Deuteronomy 19:13 558. A judge must not have mercy on the poor man at the trial—Leviticus 19:15 559. A judge must not respect the great man at the trial—Leviticus 19:15 560. A judge must not decide unjustly the case of the habitual transgressor—Exodus 23:6 561. A judge must not pervert justice—Leviticus 19:15 562. A judge must not pervert a case involving a convert or orphan—Deuteronomy 24:17 563. Judge righteously—Leviticus 19:15 564. The judge must not fear a violent man in judgment—Deuteronomy 1:17 565. Judges must not accept bribes—Exodus 23:8 566. Judges must not accept testimony unless both parties are present—Exodus 23:1 567. Not to curse judges—Exodus 22:27 568. Not to curse the head of state or leader of the Sanhedrin—Exodus 22:27 569. Not to curse any upstanding Jew—Leviticus 19:14 570. Anybody who knows evidence must testify in court—Leviticus 5:1 571. Carefully interrogate the witness—Deuteronomy 13:15 572. A witness must not serve as a judge in capital crimes—Numbers 35:30 573. Not to accept testimony from a lone witness—Deuteronomy 19:15 574. Transgressors must not testify—Exodus 23:1 575. Relatives of the litigants must not testify—Deuteronomy 24:16 576. Not to testify falsely—Exodus 20:13 577. Punish the false witnesses with the same punishment they were seeking for the defendant—Deuteronomy 19:19 578. Act according to the ruling of the Sanhedrin—Deuteronomy 17:11 579. Not to deviate from the word of the Sanhedrin—Deuteronomy 17:11 580. Not to add to the Torah commandments or their oral explanations—Deuteronomy 13:1 581. Not to diminish from the Torah any commandments, in whole or in part—Deuteronomy 13:1 582. Not to curse your father or mother—Exodus 21:17 583. Not to strike your father or mother—Exodus 21:15 584. Respect your father and mother—Exodus 20:12 585. Fear your father and mother—Leviticus 19:3 586. Not to be a rebellious son—Deuteronomy 21:20 587. Mourn for relatives—Leviticus 10:19 588. The High Priest must not defile himself through contact with a relative—Leviticus 21:11 589. The High Priest must not enter under the same roof as a corpse—Leviticus 21:11 590. A Kohen must not defile himself for anyone except relatives—Leviticus 21:1 591. Appoint a king from Israel—Deuteronomy 17:15 592. Not to appoint a convert—Deuteronomy 17:15 593. The king must not have too many wives—Deuteronomy 17:17 594. The king must not have too many horses—Deuteronomy 17:16 595. The king must not have too much silver and gold—Deuteronomy 17:17 596. Destroy the seven Canaanite nations—Deuteronomy 20:17 597. Not to let any of them remain alive—Deuteronomy 20:16 598. Wipe out the descendants of Amalek—Deuteronomy 25:19 599. Remember what Amalek did to the Jewish people—Deuteronomy 25:17 600. Not to forget Amalek's atrocities and ambush on our journey from Egypt in the desert—Deuteronomy 25:19 601. Not to dwell permanently in Egypt—Deuteronomy 17:16 602. Offer peace terms to the inhabitants of a city while holding siege, and treat them according to the Torah if they accept the terms—Deuteronomy 20:10 603. Not to offer peace to Ammon and Moab while besieging them—Deuteronomy 23:7 604. Not to destroy fruit trees even during the siege—Deuteronomy 20:19 605. Prepare latrines outside the army camps—Deuteronomy 23:13 606. Prepare a shovel for each soldier to dig with—Deuteronomy 23:14 607. Appoint a priest to speak with the soldiers during the war—Deuteronomy 20:2 608. He who has taken a wife, built a new home, or planted a vineyard is given a year to rejoice with his possessions—Deuteronomy 24:5 609. Not to demand from the above any involvement, communal or military—Deuteronomy 24:5 610. Not to panic and retreat during battle—Deuteronomy 20:3 611. Keep the laws of the captive woman—Deuteronomy 21:11 612. Not to sell her into slavery—Deuteronomy 21:14 613. Not to retain her for servitude after having relations with her—Deuteronomy 21:14