Jewish Calender

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Background and History | Numbering of Jewish Years | Months of the Jewish Year Jewish Calendar Level:  Basic The dates of Jewish holidays only seem to change from year to year.  Holidays are celebrated on the same day of the Jewish calendar every year, but the Jewish year is not the same length as a solar year on the Gregorian calendar used by most of the western world, so the date shifts on the Gregorian calendar. Background and History The Jewish calendar is primarily lunar, with each month beginning on the new moon, when the first sliver of moon becomes visible after the invisibility of the moon.  In ancient times, the new months used to be determined by observation.  When people observed the new moon, they would notify the Sanhedrin.  When the Sanhedrin heard testimony from two independent, reliable eyewitnesses that the new moon occurred on a certain date, they would declare the rosh chodesh (first of the month) and send out messengers to tell people when the month began. The problem with strictly lunar calendars is that there are approximately 12.4 lunar months in every solar year, so a 12-month lunar calendar loses about 11 days every year and a 13-month lunar gains about 19 days every year.  The months on such a calendar "drift" relative to the solar year.  On a 12-month calendar, the month of Nisan, which is supposed to occur in the Spring, occurs 11 days earlier each year, eventually occurring in the Winter, the Fall, the Summer, and then the Spring again.  To compensate for this drift, an extra month is occasionally added:  an extra month of Adar.  The month of Nisan would occur 11 days earlier for two or three years, and then would jump forward 29 or 30 days, balancing out the drift. In the fourth century, Hillel II established a fixed calendar based on mathematical and astronomical calculations.  This calendar, still in use, standardized the length of months and the addition of months over the course of a 19-year cycle, so that the lunar calendar realigns with the solar years.  An extra month of Adar is added in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th years of the cycle.  Jewish year 5758 (beginning October 2, 1997) is the first year of the current cycle. In addition, Yom Kippur should not fall adjacent to a Sabbath, because this would cause difficulties in coordinating the fast with the Sabbath, and Hoshanah Rabba should not fall on Sabbath because it would interfere with the holiday's observances.  A day is added to the month of Cheshvan or subtracted from the month of Kislev of the previous year to prevent these things from happening. Numbering of Jewish Years The year number on the Jewish calendar represents the number of years since creation, as calculated by adding up the ages of people in the Bible back to the time of creation.  However, it is important to note that this date is not necessarily supposed to represent a scientific fact.  For example, many Orthodox Jews will readily acknowledge that the seven "days" of creation are not necessarily 24-hour days (indeed, a 24-hour day would be meaningless until the creation of the sun on the fourth "day"). Jews do not generally use the words "A.D." and "B.C." to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar.  "A.D." means the year of the Lord, and we know that Jesus is not the LORD.  Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era). Months of the Jewish Year The first month of the Biblical Jewish calendar is the month of Nisan, in the spring, when Passover occurs.  However, the regular Jewish New Year is in Tishri, the seventh month in the Biblical calendar, and that is when the year number is increased.  This concept of different starting points for a year is not as strange as it might seem at first glance.  The US "new year" starts in January, but the new "school year" starts in September, and many businesses and governmental institutions have "fiscal years" that start at various times of the year.  Similarly, the Jewish calendar has different starting points for different purposes. The Jewish calendar has the following months: Month Length Gregorian Equivalent Tishri 30 days September-October Cheshvan 29 or 30 days October-November Kislev 30 or 29 days November-December Tevet 29 days December-January Shevat 30 days January-February Adar 29 or 30 days February-March Adar II 29 days March-April Nisan 30 days March-April Iyar 29 days April-May Sivan 30 days May-June Tammuz 29 days June-July Av 30 days July-August Elul 29 days August-September In leap years, Adar I has 30 days; in non-leap years, Adar has 29 days. Note that the number of days between Nisan and Tishri is always the same.  Because of this, the time from the first major Biblical festival (Passover in Nisan) to the last major Biblical festival (Sukkot in Tishri) is always the same. There are plenty of easily accessible computer programs that will calculate the Jewish calendar for any year one needs. For an excellent detailed explanation of these matters, see Hebrew Calendar Science and Myths. 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Tzedekah : Charity

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Meaning of "Tzedakah" | Obligation of Tzedakah | Levels of Tzedakah Tzedakah:  Charity Level:  Intermediate Charity is a fundamental part of the Torah way of life:  Traditional Jews give at least ten percent of their income to charity.  Traditional Jewish homes commonly have a box for collecting coins for the poor, and coins are routinely placed in the box.  Jewish youths are continually going from door to door collecting for various worthy causes.  In many ways, charitable donation has taken the place of animal sacrifice in Jewish life:  giving to charity is an almost instinctive Jewish response to express thanks to God, to ask forgiveness from God, or to request a favor from God.  According to Jewish tradition, the spiritual benefit of giving to the poor is so great that a beggar actually does the giver a favor by giving a person the opportunity to perform tzedakah. The Meaning of "Tzedakah" "Tzedakah" is the Hebrew word for the acts that we call "charity" in English:  giving aid, assistance, and money to the poor and needy or to other worthy causes.  But the nature of tzedakah is very different from the idea of charity.  The word "charity" suggests benevolence and generosity, a magnanimous act by the wealthy and powerful for the benefit of the poor and needy.  The word "tzedakah" is derived from the Hebrew root Tzade-Dalet-Qof, meaning righteousness, justice, or fairness.  In Judaism, giving to the poor is not viewed as a generous, magnanimous act; it is simply an act of justice and righteousness, the performance of a duty, giving the poor their due. The Obligation of Tzedakah Giving to the poor is an obligation in Judaism, a duty that cannot be forsaken even by those who are themselves in need.  Some sages have said that tzedakah is the highest of all commandments, equal to all of them combined, and that a person who does not perform tzedakah is equivalent to an idol worshipper.  Tzedakah is one of the three acts that gain us forgiveness from our sins.  The High Holiday liturgy states that God has inscribed a judgment against all who have sinned, but teshuvah (repentance), tefillah (prayer) and tzedakah can reverse the decree.  See Days of Awe. According to Jewish law, we are required to give one-tenth of our income to the poor.  This is generally interpreted as one-tenth of our net income after payment of taxes.  Those who are dependent on public assistance or living on the edge of subsistence may give less; no one should give so much that he would become a public burden, nor more than twenty percent of his assets even if he would not become a public burden. The obligation to perform tzedakah can be fulfilled by giving money to the poor, to health care institutions, to synagogues, or to educational institutions.  It can also be fulfilled by supporting your children beyond the age when you are legally required to, or supporting your parents in their old age.  The obligation includes giving to both Jews and Gentiles; contrary to popular belief, Jews do not just "take care of our own". Judaism acknowledges that many people who ask for charity have no genuine need.  In fact, the Talmud suggests that this is a good thing:  if all people who asked for charity were in genuine need, we would be subject to punishment (from God) for refusing anyone who asked.  The existence of frauds diminishes our liability for failing to give to all who ask, because we have some legitimate basis for doubting the beggar's sincerity.  It is permissible to investigate the legitimacy of a charity before donating to it. We have an obligation to avoid becoming in need of tzedakah.  A person should take any work that is available, even if he thinks it is beneath his dignity, to avoid becoming a public charge.  In particular, Jewish legal scholars, teachers, and rabbis must make their living at something other than teaching the Oral Torah and relying on charity, even if this entails hardships for them, lest they profane God's name, and lose their part in the World to Come.  Unfortunately, many rabbis have failed to take this seriously in recent generations; some have brazenly gone so far as to say that the public must support them, and that they are forbidden to work. If a person is truly in need, however, and has no way to obtain money on his own, he should not feel embarrassed to accept tzedakah.  No one should feel too proud to take money from others.  In fact, it is considered a transgression to refuse tzedakah.  One who would sooner die than to accept tzedakah, when he must do so in order to survive, is as if he sheds his own blood. Levels of Tzedakah Certain kinds of tzedakah are considered more meritorious than others.  The Talmud describes these different levels of tzedakah, and Maimonides organized them into a list.  The levels of charity, from the least meritorious to the most meritorious, are: Giving begrudgingly Giving less than you should, but giving it cheerfully. Giving after being asked Giving before being asked Giving when you do not know the recipient's identity, but the recipient knows your identity Giving when you know the recipient's identity, but the recipient does not know your identity Giving when neither party knows the other's identity Enabling the recipient to become self-reliant Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Qorbanot: Secrifices and Offerings

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Frequently Asked Questions | Qorbanot | Purposes of Qorbanot | Types of Qorbanot:  · Olah:  Burnt Offering  · Zebach Sh'lamim:  Peace Offering  · Chatat:  Sin Offering  · Asham:  Guilt Offering  · Food and Drink Offerings  · Parah Adumah:  The Red Heifer Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings Level:  Advanced Frequently Asked Questions We begin by answering the questions most commonly asked on these subjects, and then proceed to a more comprehensive discussion of the subject of qorbanot. Do Jews offer sacrifices today? No.  No Jews today are known to publicly offer any kind of animal sacrifice or offerings, nor have Jews offered sacrifices since the second century C.E. There are Orthodox Jews in Israel who practice the techniques of ritual sacrifice, so that the knowledge will not be lost; a remembrance of the Pesach sacrifice was slaughtered in 5760 (2000 C.E.), within sight of the Temple Mount.  But this is not at all the same thing as offering a sacrifice.    When did Jews stop offering sacrifices, and why? For the most part, the practice of sacrifice stopped in the year 70 C.E., when the Roman army destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, the place where sacrifices were offered.  The practice was briefly resumed during the Jewish War of 132-135 C.E., but was ended permanently after that war was lost.  There were also a few communities that continued sacrifices for a while after that time. We stopped offering sacrifices because we do not have a proper place to offer them.  The Torah specifically commands us not to offer sacrifices wherever we feel like it; we are only permitted to offer sacrifices in the place that God has chosen for that purpose (Deuteronomy 12,13-14).  It would be a sin to offer sacrifices in any other place. The last place appointed by God for this purpose was the Temple in Jerusalem; but the Temple has been destroyed, and a mosque has been erected in the place where it stood.  Until we observant Jews recapture the Temple Mount and rebuild the Temple, we cannot offer sacrifices. Orthodox Jews believe that when the Mashiach comes, sacrifices will be renewed.  Some of us think it better not to wait for him, but to be about the business of rebuilding the Temple and reinstituting the sacrifices; in any event, it is permitted to bring all of the regular order of sacrifices today on the Temple Mount at the place where the altar was, even now when the Temple is no longer standing.   Do Jews want to resume sacrifices? Orthodox Jews do.  There are several places in our daily prayer services where we pray for the restoration of the Temple and the resumption of its rituals, including the rituals of sacrifice.   Did the kohanim (priests) or anybody else eat the animals offered? Yes!  Most types of offerings could and should be eaten.  Certain types were eaten by the kohanim only, or by a specific kohein.  Other types were eaten by the person offering the sacrifice and his family, friends, and guests (particularly the poor who could not afford sacrifices themselves).  The types of offerings and who was permitted to eat them will be discussed further below.   Isn't sacrifice cruelty to animals? Animal sacrifice is no more cruel than slaughtering animals for food.  In fact, the procedure for slaughtering livestock for sacrificial purposes is the same as the procedure used for slaughtering animals for food, a procedure commanded by God that is designed to be as quick and painless as possible (see Shechitah).  The Torah is very concerned about the proper treatment of animals, and would never advocate a cruel procedure for animal sacrifice.   How do Jews obtain forgiveness without sacrifices? Forgiveness of sins against God alone is simply obtained through repentance and confession of one's sins in words before God Himself, and amending one's future conduct according to the halakhah; when one sins against a person (as by theft or injury), he must also do his best to make restitution to the person injured and gain his forgiveness, as well as repenting, confessing, and making amends in future conduct before God.  Gentiles may be surprised to learn that this is as fully effective for them as for Jews (which is the main point of the Book of Jonah, of course; see Jonah 3,10, in particular).  When the Temple stands, some sins require offerings as explained below in addition to this repentance process, not instead of it; without this repentance process, offerings for sins are totally ineffective, and must be brought again when one has truly repented. It is important to emphasize that under the Torah, sacrifice was never the exclusive means of obtaining forgiveness, was not in and of itself sufficient to obtain forgiveness, and in certain circumstances was not even effective to obtain forgiveness.  This will be discussed further below. In current Jewish practice, prayer and study of the laws of sacrifices has taken the place of sacrifices.  In accordance with the words of Hosea, we render instead of bullocks the offering of our lips (Hosea 14,3; please note that the KJV translates this somewhat differently).  While dedicating the Temple, King Solomon referred to the idea that prayer can be used to obtain forgiveness (I Kings 8,46-50).  Our prayer services are in many ways designed to parallel the sacrificial practices; for example, we have an extra service on shabbat, to parallel the extra shabbat offering.  For more information about this, see Jewish Liturgy.   But isn't a blood sacrifice required in order to obtain forgiveness? Not at all, as we have just seen in the previous paragraph.  Although animal sacrifice is one means of obtaining forgiveness, there are non-animal offerings as well, and there are other means for obtaining forgiveness that do not involve sacrifices at all. The passage that people ordinarily cite for the notion that blood is required is Leviticus 17,11:  "For the soul of the flesh is in the blood and I have assigned it for you upon the altar to provide atonement for your souls; for it is the blood that atones for the soul".  But the passage that this verse comes from is not about atonement, but about dietary laws, and the passage only says that blood is used to obtain atonement--not that blood is the sole means for obtaining atonement.  Leviticus 17,10-12 could be paraphrased as "Do not eat blood, because blood is used in atonement rituals; therefore, do not eat blood".   Were sacrifices a symbol of the savior to come? Not according to the Torah.  That is a Christian teaching that has no basis in Jewish thought.  Jews do not believe in a savior, and do not believe that sacrifice has anything to do with a savior or mashiach. Quite the contrary, some would say that the original institution of sacrifice had more to do with the Torah's past than with its future.  Maimonides suggested that the entire sacrificial cult in Torah was ordained as an accommodation to man's primitive desires; but once God included it in the Torah, it became a permanent part of our required worship of God. Sacrifice was an ancient and universal human expression of religion.  Sacrifice existed among the Hebrews long before the giving of the Torah.  When the laws of sacrifice were laid down in the Torah, the pre-existence of a system of sacrificial offering was understood, and sacrificial terminology was used without any explanation.  The Torah, rather than creating the institution of sacrifice, carefully circumscribes and limits the practice, permitting it only in certain places, at certain times, in certain manners, by certain people, and for certain purposes.  Maimonides suggested that these limitations are designed to wean a primitive people away from the debased rites of their idolatrous neighbors.   Qorbanot In ancient times, a major component of Jewish ritual was the offering of qorbanot.  An entire order of the Talmud (Kodashim, that is, Holy Things) is devoted to the subject. The word "qorbanot" is usually translated as "sacrifices" or "offerings"; however, both of these terms suggest a loss of something or a giving up of something, and although that is certainly a part of the ritual, that is not at all the literal meaning of the Hebrew word.  The word qorbanot comes from the root Qof-Resh-Bet, which means to draw near, and indicates the primary purpose of offerings:  to draw us near to God. Parts of the rituals involved in the offering of qorbanot were performed exclusively by the kohanim (priests).  These rituals were only performed in the Temple in Jerusalem.  The procedures could not be performed by anyone else, and could not be performed in any other place.  Because the Temple no longer exists, we can no longer offer qorbanot. There are three basic concepts underlying qorbanot.  The first the aspect of giving.  A qorban requires the renunciation of something that belongs to the person making the offering.  Thus, sacrifices are made from domestic animals, not wild animals (because wild animals do not belong to anyone).  Likewise, offerings of food are ordinarily in the form of flour or meal, which requires substantial work to prepare. Another important concept is the element of substitution.  The idea is that the thing being offered is a substitute for the person making the offering, and the things that are done to the offering are things that should have been done to the person offering.  The offering is in some sense "punished" in place of the offerer.  It is interesting to note that whenever the subject of qorbanot is addressed in the Torah, the name of God used is the four-letter name indicating God's mercy. The third important concept is of coming closer.  The essence of sacrifice is to bring a person closer to God.   Purposes of Qorbanot Contrary to popular belief, the purpose of qorbanot is not simply to obtain forgiveness from sin.  When the Temple stands, every Jew who can is required to come to Jerusalem three times a year for special holidays that require bringing several different types of qorbanot, most of which are eaten by the celebrants with their family and friends.  These qorbanot bring the Jewish people together, and build both solidarity between us and our God on the one hand and among us on the other. Certain qorbanot are brought purely for the purpose of communing with God and becoming closer to Him.  Others are brought for the purpose of expressing thanks, love, or gratitude to God.  Others are used to cleanse a person of ritual impurity (which does not necessarily have anything to do with sin).  And yes, some qorbanot are brought for purposes of atonement. The atoning aspect of qorbanot is carefully circumscribed.  For the most part, qorbanot only expiate unintentional sins, that is, sins committed because a person forgot that this thing was a sin.  No atonement is needed for violations committed under duress, and for the most part, qorbanot cannot atone for a malicious, deliberate sin.  In addition, qorbanot have no expiating effect unless the person making the offering sincerely repents of his actions before making the offering, and makes restitution to any person harmed by his sin.   Types of Qorbanot There are many different types of qorbanot, and the laws related to them are detailed and complicated.  This section will merely introduce some of the major types of qorbanot, their names, and their characteristics.  There are many subtypes within these classifications, and some other types that do not fit neatly into these categories.   Olah:  Burnt Offering Perhaps the best-known class of offerings is the burnt offering.  It was the oldest and commonest sacrifice, and represented submission to God's will.  The Hebrew word for burnt offering is olah, from the root Ayin-Lamed-Heh, meaning ascension.  It is the same root as the word aliyah, which is used to describe moving to Israel or ascending to the podium to read from a Torah scroll.  An olah is completely burnt on the outer altar; no part of it is eaten by anyone.  Because the offering represents complete submission to God's will, the entire offering is given to God (i.e., it cannot be used after it is burnt).  It expresses a desire to commune with God.  An olah could be brought from cattle, sheep, goats, or even doves.  Gentiles were allowed to bring an olah in our Temple, unlike the rest of the kinds of qorbanot, which were reserved for Jews alone within the Temple itself; it should be remembered, however, that Gentiles are permitted to build their own place for qorbanot, and offer them to God themselves, and are promised reward for this meritorious behavior (it is disappointing that Gentiles have so far neglected this opportunity, by the way).   Zebach Sh'lamim:  Peace Offering A peace offering is an offering expressing thanks or gratitude to God for His bounties and mercies.  The Hebrew term for this type of offering is zebach sh'lamim (or sometimes just sh'lamim), which is related to the word shalom, meaning peace or wholeness.  A representative portion of the offering is burnt on the altar, a portion is given to the kohanim, and the rest is eaten by the offerer and his family; thus, everyone gets a part of this offering.  This category of offerings includes thanksgiving-offerings, free will-offerings, and offerings made after fulfillment of a vow.  Note that this class of offerings has nothing to do with sin, and could properly be brought by the most righteous of the righteous.   Chatat:  Sin Offering A sin offering is an offering to atone for and purge a sin.  It is an expression of sorrow for the error and a desire to be reconciled with God.  The Hebrew term for this type of offering is chatat, from the word "chayt", meaning missing the mark.  A chatat could only be offered for unintentional sins committed through carelessness or ignorance, not for intentional malicious sins.  The size of the offering varied according to the nature of the sin and the financial means of the sinner.  Some chatatot are individual and some are communal.  Communal offerings represent the interdependence of the community, and the idea that we are all responsible for each other's sins.  A few special chatatot could not be eaten, but for the most part, for the average person's personal sin, the chatat was eaten by the kohanim.   Asham:  Guilt Offering A guilt offering is an offering to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust.  The Hebrew word for a guilt offering is asham.  When there was doubt as to whether a person committed a sin, the person would bring an asham, rather than a chatat, because bringing a chatat would constitute admission of the sin, and the person would have to be punished for it.  If a person brought an asham and later discovered that he had in fact committed the sin, he would have to bring a chatat at that time.  An asham was eaten by the kohanim.   Food and Drink Offerings A meal offering (minchah) represented the devotion of the fruits of man's work to God, because it was not a natural product, but something created through man's effort.  A representative piece of the offering was burnt on the fire of the altar, but the rest was eaten by the kohanim. There are also offerings of undiluted wine, referred to as nesekh.   Parah Adumah:  The Red Heifer In 1997 and again in 2002, red heifers were born in Israel.  These births received quite a bit of press coverage, and there were many questions asking about their significance. The ritual of the red heifer (in Hebrew, parah adumah) is part of one of the most mysterious rituals described in the Torah.  The purpose of this ritual is to purify people from the defilement caused by contact with the dead.  The ritual is described in Numbers 19.  If you find it difficult to understand, do not feel bad; the sages themselves described it as beyond human understanding.  What is so interesting about this ritual is that it purifies the impure, but it also renders the pure impure (i.e., everybody who participates in the ritual becomes impure). It is believed by many that this ritual will be performed by the Mashiach when he comes, because we have all suffered the defilement of contact with the dead.  Thus, the existence of a red heifer is a possible, but not definite, sign of the Mashiach.  If the Mashiach were coming, there would be a red heifer, but there could be a red heifer without the Mashiach coming. Unfortunately, in the end, both of heifers we have had so far were disqualified.     Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Why Observe? | How Difficult? | Fundamental Rules | Details | Forbidden Animals | Kosher slaughtering | Draining of blood | Fats & Nerves | Meat & Dairy | Utensils | Grape Products | Kashrut Certification Kashrut:  Jewish Dietary Laws Level:  Intermediate Kashrut is the body of Jewish law dealing with what foods we can and cannot eat and how those foods must be prepared and eaten.  "Kashrut" comes from the Hebrew root Kaf-Shin-Resh, meaning fit, proper, or correct.  It is the same root as the more commonly known word "kosher", which describes food that meets these standards.  The word "kosher" can also be used, and often is used, to describe ritual objects that are made in accordance with Jewish law and are fit for ritual use. There is no such thing as "kosher-style" food.  Kosher is not a style of cooking.  Chinese food can be kosher if it is prepared in accordance with Jewish law, and there are many fine kosher Chinese restaurants in Philadelphia and New York.  Traditional Ashkenazic Jewish foods like knishes, bagels, blintzes, and matzah ball soup can all be non-kosher if not prepared in accordance with Jewish law.  When a restaurant calls itself "kosher-style", it usually means that the restaurant serves these traditional Jewish foods, and it almost invariably means that the food is not actually kosher. Food that is not kosher is commonly referred to as "treyf" (literally, torn, from the commandment not to eat animals that have been torn by other animals). Why Do We Observe the Laws of Kashrut? Many modern Jews think that the laws of kashrut are simply primitive health regulations that have become obsolete with modern methods of food preparation.  There is no question that some of the dietary laws have some beneficial health effects.  For example, the laws regarding kosher slaughter are so sanitary that kosher butchers and slaughterhouses have been exempted from many USDA regulations. However, health is not the only reason for Jewish dietary laws.  Many of the laws of kashrut have no known connection with health.  To the best of our modern scientific knowledge, there is no reason why camel or rabbit meat (both treyf) is any less healthy than cow or goat meat.  In addition, some of the health benefits to be derived from kashrut were not made obsolete by the refrigerator.  For example, there is some evidence that eating meat and dairy together interferes with digestion, and no modern food preparation technique reproduces the health benefit of the kosher law of eating them separately. The short answer to why we observe these laws is:  because the Torah says so.  The Torah does not specify any reason for these laws, and for a Torah-observant, traditional Jew, there is no need for any other reason.  Some have suggested that the laws of kashrut fall into the category of "chukkim", laws for which there is no reason.  We show our obedience to God by following these laws even though we do not know the reason.  Others, however, have tried to ascertain God's reason for imposing these laws. In his book "To Be a Jew" (an excellent resource on traditional Judaism), Rabbi Hayim Halevy Donin suggests that the dietary laws are designed as a call to holiness.  The ability to distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil, pure and defiled, the sacred and the profane, is very important in Judaism.  Imposing rules on what you can and cannot eat ingrains that kind of self control.  In addition, it elevates the simple act of eating into a religious ritual.  The Jewish dinner table is often compared to the Temple altar in rabbinic literature. How Difficult is it to Keep Kosher? People who do not keep kosher often say how difficult it is.  Actually, keeping kosher is not particularly difficult in and of itself; what makes it difficult to keep kosher is that the rest of the world does not do so. As we shall see below, the basic underlying rules are fairly simple.  If you buy your meat at a kosher butcher and buy only kosher certified products at the market, the only thing you need to think about is the separation of meat and dairy. Keeping kosher only becomes difficult when you try to eat in a non-kosher restaurant, or at the home of a person who does not keep kosher.  In those situations, your lack of knowledge about your host's ingredients and the food preparation techniques make it very difficult to keep kosher.  Some commentators have pointed out, however, that this may well have been part of what God had in mind:  to make it more difficult for us to socialize with those who do not share our religion. The Fundamental Rules Although the details of kashrut are extensive, the laws all derive from a few fairly simple, straightforward rules: Certain animals may not be eaten at all.  This restriction includes the flesh, organs, eggs, and milk of the forbidden animals. Of the animals that may be eaten, the birds and mammals must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law. All blood must be drained from the meat or broiled out of it before it is eaten. Certain parts of permitted animals may not be eaten. Meat (the flesh of birds and mammals) cannot be eaten with dairy.  Fish, eggs, fruits, vegetables, and grains can be eaten with either meat or dairy. Utensils that have come into contact with meat may not be used with dairy, and vice versa.  Utensils that have come into contact with non-kosher food may not be used with kosher food.  This applies only where the contact occurred while the food was hot. Grape products made by non-Jews may not be eaten or drunk. The Details Animals that may not be eaten Of the "beasts of the earth" (which basically refers to land mammals with the exception of swarming rodents), you may eat any animal that has cloven hooves and chews its cud.  Leviticus 11,3; Deuternomy 14,6.  Any land mammal that does not have both of these qualities is forbidden.  The Torah specifies that the camel, the rock badger, the hare and the pig are not kosher because each lacks one of these two qualifications.  Sheep, cattle, goats, and deer are kosher. Of the things that are in the waters, you may eat anything that has fins and scales.  Leviticus 11,9; Deuteronomy 14,9.  Thus, shellfish such as lobsters, oysters, shrimp, clams, and crabs are all forbidden.  Fish like tuna, carp, salmon, and herring are all permitted. For birds, the criteria are less clear.  The Torah lists forbidden birds (Leviticus 11,13-19; Deuteronomy 14,11-18), but does not specify why these particular birds are forbidden.  All of the birds on the list are birds of prey or scavengers, thus the rabbis inferred that this was the basis for the distinction.  Other birds are permitted, such as chicken, geese, ducks, and turkeys. Of the "winged swarming things" (winged insects), a few are specifically permitted (Leviticus 11,21). Rodents, reptiles, amphibians, and insects (except as mentioned above) are all forbidden (Leviticus 11,29-30, 42-43). Some authorities require a post-mortem examination of the lungs of cattle, to determine whether the lungs are free from adhesions.  If the lungs are free from such adhesions, the animal is deemed "glatt" (that is, "smooth").  In certain circumstances, an animal can be kosher without being glatt; however, the stringency of keeping "glatt kosher" has become increasingly common in recent years. As mentioned above, any product derived from these forbidden animals, such as their milk, eggs, fat, or organs, also cannot be eaten.  Rennet, an enzyme used to harden cheese, is often obtained from non-kosher animals, thus kosher hard cheese can be difficult to find. Kosher slaughtering The mammals and birds that may be eaten must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law; "as I have commanded thee" (Deuteronomy 12,21) is according to the Oral Torah on kosher slaughter given to Moses at Sinai.  We may not eat animals that died of natural causes (Deuteronomy 14,21) or that were killed by other animals (Exodus 22,30).  In addition, the animal must have no disease or flaws in the organs at the time of slaughter.  These restrictions do not apply to fish, which may be merely "gathered" (Numbers 11,22). Ritual slaughter is known as shechitah, and the person who performs the slaughter is called a shochet, both from the Hebrew root Shin-Chet-Tet, meaning to slaughter.  The method of slaughter is a quick, deep stroke across the throat with a perfectly sharp blade with no nicks or unevenness.  This method is painless, causes unconsciousness within seconds, and is widely recognized as the most humane method of slaughter possible. Another advantage of shechitah is that ensures rapid, complete draining of the blood, which is also necessary to render the meat kosher. The shochet is not simply a butcher; he must be a pious man, well-trained in Jewish law, particularly as it relates to kashrut.  In smaller, more remote communities, the rabbi and the shochet were often the same person. Draining of Blood The Torah prohibits consumption of blood.  Leviticus 7,26-27; Leviticus 17,10-14.  This is the only dietary law that has a reason specified in Torah:  we do not eat blood because the life of the animal is contained in the blood.  This applies only to the blood of birds and mammals, not to fish blood.  Thus, it is necessary to remove all blood from the flesh of kosher animals. The first step in this process occurs at the time of slaughter.  As mentioned above, shechitah allows for rapid draining of most of the blood. The remaining blood must be removed by salting, and then either broiling or emersing the salted meat in boiling water till it whitens.  Liver may only be koshered by the broiling method, because it has so much blood in it and such complex blood vessels.  This final process must be completed within 72 hours after slaughter, and before the meat is frozen or ground.  Most butchers and all frozen food vendors take care of the salting for you, but you should always check this when you are buying someplace you are unfamiliar with. An egg that contains a blood spot may not be eaten.  This is not very common, but one finds them once in a while.  It is a good idea to break an egg into a container and check it before you put it into a heated pan, because if you put a blood-stained egg into a heated pan, the pan becomes non-kosher. Forbidden Fats and Nerves The sciatic nerve and its adjoining blood vessels may not be eaten.  The process of removing this nerve is time consuming and not very cost-effective, so most kosher slaughterers simply sell the hind quarters to non-kosher butchers. A certain kind of fat, known as chelev, which surrounds the vital organs and the liver, may not be eaten.  Kosher butchers remove this.  Modern scientists have found biochemical differences between this type of fat and the permissible fat around the muscles and under the skin. Separation of Meat and Dairy On three separate occasions, the Torah tells us not to "boil a kid in its mother's milk" (Exodus 23,19; Exodus 34,26; Deuteronomy 14,21).  The Oral Torah explains that this passage prohibits eating meat and dairy together.  The rabbis extended this prohibition to include not eating milk and poultry together.  It is, however, permissible to eat fish and dairy together, and it is quite common.  It is also permissible to eat dairy and eggs together.  According to some views, it is not permissible to eat meat and fish together, but we are not certain of the reason for that restriction (it has been attributed to medical opinion in the Middle Ages, for example). This separation includes not only the foods themselves, but the utensils, pots and pans with which they are cooked, the plates and flatware from which they are eaten, the dishwashers or dishpans in which they are cleaned, and the towels on which they are dried.  A kosher household will have at least two sets of pots, pans, and dishes:  one for meat and one for dairy.  See Utensils below for more details. One must wait a significant amount of time between eating meat and dairy.  Opinions differ, and vary from one or two to six hours.  This is because fatty residues and meat particles tend to cling to the mouth.  From dairy to meat, however, one need only rinse one's mouth and eat a neutral solid like bread, unless the dairy product in question is also of a type that tends to stick in the mouth. The Yiddish words fleishig (meat), milchig (dairy), and pareve (neutral) are commonly used to describe food or utensils that fall into one of those categories. Note that even the smallest quantity of dairy (or meat) in something renders it entirely dairy (or meat) for purposes of kashrut.  For example, most margarines are dairy for kosher purposes, because they contain a small quantity of whey or other dairy products to give it a dairy-like taste.  Animal fat is considered meat for purposes of kashrut.  You should read the ingredients very carefully, even if the product is kosher-certified. Utensils Utensils (pots, pans, plates, flatware, etc., etc.) must also be kosher.  A utensil picks up the kosher "status" (meat, dairy, pareve, or treyf) of the food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it, and transmits that status back to the next food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it.  Thus, if you cook chicken soup in a saucepan, the pan becomes meat.  If you thereafter use the same saucepan to heat up some warm milk, the fleishig status of the pan is transmitted to the milk, and the milchig status of the milk is transmitted to the pan, making both the pan and the milk a forbidden mixture. Kosher status can be transmitted from the food to the utensil or from the utensil to the food only in the presence of heat, thus if you are eating cold food in a non-kosher establishment, the condition of the plates is not an issue.  Likewise, you could use the same knife to slice cold cuts and cheese, as long as you clean it in between, but this is not really a recommended procedure, because it increases the likelihood of mistakes. Stove tops and sinks routinely become non-kosher utensils, because they routinely come in contact with both meat and dairy in the presence of heat.  It is necessary, therefore, to use dishpans when cleaning dishes (do not soak them directly in the sink) and to use separate spoon rests and trivets when putting things down on the stove top. Dishwashers are a kashrut problem.  If you are going to use a dishwasher in a kosher home, you either need to have separate dish racks or you need to run the dishwasher in between meat and dairy loads. You should use separate towels and pot holders for meat and dairy.  Routine laundering koshers such items, so you can simply launder them between using them for meat and dairy. Certain kinds of utensils can be "koshered" if you make a mistake and use it with both meat and dairy.  Consult a rabbi for guidance if this situation occurs. Grape Products The restrictions on grape products derive from the laws against using products of idolatry.  Wine was commonly used in the rituals of all ancient religions, and wine was routinely sanctified for pagan purposes while it was being processed.  For this reason, use of wines and other grape products made by non-Jews was prohibited.  (Whole grapes are not a problem, nor are whole grapes in fruit cocktail). For the most part, this rule only affects wine and grape juice.  This becomes a concern with many fruit drinks or fruit-flavored drinks, which are often sweetened with grape juice.  You may also notice that it is virtually impossible to find kosher baking powder, because baking powder is made with cream of tartar, a by-product of wine making. Kashrut Certification The task of keeping kosher is greatly simplified by widespread kashrut certification.  Approximately 3/4 of all prepackaged foods have some kind of kosher certification, and most major brands have reliable Orthodox certification. The symbols at right are all widely-accepted kashrut certifications commonly found on products throughout the United States.  With a little practice, it is very easy to spot these marks on food labels, usually near the product name, occasionally near the list of ingredients.  There are many other certifications available, of varying degrees of strictness. The most controversial certification is the K, a plain letter K found on products asserted to be kosher.  All other kosher certification marks are trademarked and cannot be used without the permission of the certifying organization.  The certifying organization stands behind the kashrut of the product.  But you cannot trademark a letter of the alphabet, so any manufacturer can put a K on a product.  For example, Jell-O brand gelatin puts a K on its product, even though almost every reliable Orthodox authority agrees that Jell-O is not kosher. It is becoming increasingly common for kosher certifying organizations to indicate whether the product is fleishig, milchig, or pareve.  If the product is dairy, it will frequently have a D or the word Dairy next to the kashrut symbol.  If it is meat, the word Meat or an M may appear near the symbol.  If it is pareve, the word Pareve (or Parev) may appear near the symbol (Not a P!  That means kosher for Passover!).  If no such clarification appears, you should read the ingredient list carefully to determine whether the product is meat, dairy, or pareve. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Kosher Sex

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Attitude Towards Sexuality | Laws of Separation | Birth Control | Abortion | Homosexuality Kosher Sex Level:  Advanced Note:  This page addresses issues of Jewish law that may not be appropriate for younger readers.  Please exercise appropriate discretion. Attitude Towards Sexuality In Jewish law, sex is not considered inherently shameful, sinful, or obscene.  Sex is not seen as a necessary evil for the sole purpose of procreation.  Although sexual desire comes from the yetzer hara (the so-called "evil impulse"), it is no more evil than hunger or thirst, which also come from the yetzer hara.  Like hunger, thirst, or other basic needs, sexual desire must be controlled, channeled, and satisfied in the proper time, place, and manner.  But when sexual desire is satisfied between a husband and wife at the proper time and out of mutual love and desire, sexual relations are actually a mitzvah (a Biblical commandment, see Exodus 21,10 referring to "conjugal rights" and the commentary on it). Sexual enjoyment (whether involving intercourse or mere hand holding) is permissible for Jews only within the context of marriage.  For Torah, sex is not merely a way of experiencing physical pleasure.  It is properly an act of immense significance, which requires commitment and responsibility.  The requirement of marriage before sex ensures that sense of commitment and responsibility.  The Torah forbids all sexual contact short of intercourse outside of the context of marriage, recognizing that such contact is likely lead to intercourse and is damaging in and of itself.  Jews are rabbinically forbidden to even engage in sexual fantasy, let alone masturbation alone or mutual masturbation outside of marriage. The primary purpose of sexual relations is to reinforce the loving marital bond between husband and wife.  The first and foremost purpose of marriage is intimate long-term companionship (not just bearing children in a family context), and sexual relations play an important role in that.  Procreation is also a reason for sex, but it is not the only reason; after a woman is no longer able to bear children, she is still expected to have an active sex life, just as during her child-bearing years (the idea that old folks should not or do not have sexual relations is an alien one in a Torah context).  Sex between husband and wife is also recommended (and even required) at other times when conception is impossible, such as when the woman is pregnant or when the woman is using a permissible form of contraception.  Kosher sexual relations are not necessarily limited to those that can lead to pregnancy, either:  anal and oral relations are permitted, if enjoyable to both marital partners, though Jewish men have a separate commandment to reproduce, and should generally end up having normal vaginal intercourse. In the Written Torah, one of the words used for sex between husband and wife comes from the root Yod-Dalet-Ayin, meaning to know, which vividly illustrates that proper Jewish sexuality involves both the heart and mind, not merely the body.  (The English expression "sexual knowledge" seems to be derived from this Biblical idea, but generally has a negative connotation lacking in the Hebrew.) Nevertheless, Torah does not ignore the physical component of sexuality.  The need for physical compatibility between husband and wife is recognized in Jewish law.  A Jewish couple must meet at least once before the marriage, and if either prospective spouse finds the other physically unattractive, they should not marry. Sexual relations should only be experienced in a time of joy.  Sex for selfish personal satisfaction, without regard for the partner's pleasure, is wrong and evil.  A man may never force his wife to have sex.  A couple may not have sexual relations while drunk or quarreling.  Sex may never be used as a weapon against a spouse, either by depriving the spouse of sex or by compelling it.  It is a serious offense to use sex (or lack thereof) to punish or manipulate a spouse. Sex is the woman's right, not the man's.  A man has a duty to give his wife sex regularly and to ensure that sex is pleasurable for her.  He is also obligated to watch for signs that his wife wants sex, and to offer it to her without her asking for it.  The woman's right to sexual intercourse is referred to as onah, and is one of a wife's three basic rights (the others are food and clothing), which a husband may not reduce.  The Talmud specifies both the quantity and quality of sex that a man must give his wife.  It specifies the frequency of sexual obligation based on the husband's occupation, although this obligation can be modified in the ketubah (marriage contract).  A man may not take a vow to abstain from sex for an extended period of time, and may not take a journey for an extended period of time, because that would deprive his wife of sexual relations.  In addition, a husband's consistent refusal to engage in sexual relations is grounds for compelling a man to divorce his wife, even if the couple has already fulfilled the halakhic obligation to procreate. Although sex is the woman's right, she does not have absolute discretion to withhold it from her husband.  A woman may not withhold sex from her husband as a form of punishment, and if she does, the husband may divorce her without paying the substantial divorce settlement provided for in the ketubah. Although some sources take a more narrow view, the general view of halakhah is that any sexual conduct that does not regularly involve ejaculation outside the vagina is permissible.  As one passage in the Talmud states, "a man may do whatever he pleases with his wife".  In fact, there are passages in the Talmud that encourage foreplay to arouse the woman, and oral and anal sex are permitted (though not necessarily desirable), if they are not to the exclusion of vaginal sex. Niddah:  The Laws of Separation One of the most mysterious areas of Jewish sexual practices is the law of niddah, separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  These laws are also known as taharat ha-mishpachah, family purity.  Few people outside of the Orthodox community are even aware that these laws exist, which is unfortunate, because these laws provide many undeniable benefits.  The laws of niddah are not deliberately kept secret; they are simply unknown because most non-Orthodox Jews do not continue their religious education beyond bar mitzvah, and these laws address subjects that are not really suitable for discussion with children under the age of 13. According to the Torah, a man is forbidden from having sexual intercourse with a niddah, that is, a menstruating woman.  The law of niddah is the only law of ritual purity that continues to be observed today.  At one time, a large portion of Jewish law revolved around questions of ritual purity and impurity.  The other laws mainly had significance in the context of the Temple, and are not applicable today. The time of separation begins at the first sign of blood and ends in the evening after the woman's seventh "clean day".  This separation lasts about 12 to 14 days.  The rabbis broadened this prohibition, providing that a man may not even touch his wife during this time.  Weddings must be scheduled carefully, so that the woman is not in a state of niddah on her wedding night. At the end of the period of niddah, as soon as possible after nightfall after the seventh clean day, the woman must immerse herself in a kosher mikveh, a ritual pool.  The mikveh was traditionally used to cleanse a person of various forms of ritual impurity.  Today, it is used almost exclusively for this purpose and as part of the ritual of conversion.  It is important to note that the purpose of the mikveh is solely ritual purification, not physical cleanliness; in fact, immersion in the mikveh is done only after a woman has bathed and shampooed and combed her hair.  The mikveh is such an important part of traditional Jewish ritual life that a new community is required to build a mikveh before they build a synagogue. The Torah does not specify the reason for the laws of niddah, but this period of abstention has both physical and psychological benefits. The fertility benefits of this practice are obvious and undeniable.  In fact, it is remarkable how closely these laws parallel the advice given by medical professionals today.  When couples are having trouble conceiving, modern medical professionals routinely advise them to abstain from sex during the two weeks around a woman's period (to increase the man's sperm count at a time when conception is not possible), and to have sex on alternate nights during the remaining two weeks.  When you combine this basic physical benefit with the psychological benefit of believing that you are fulfilling God's will, it is absolutely shocking that more couples with fertility problems do not attempt this practice.  The rejection of this practice by the liberal movements of Judaism is not a matter of "informed choice", but simply a matter of ignorance or blind prejudice. In addition, women who have sexual intercourse during their menstrual period are more vulnerable to a variety of vaginal infections, as well as increased risk of cervical cancer. But the benefits that the rabbis have always emphasized are the psychological ones, not the physical ones.  The rabbis noted that a two-week period of abstention every month forces a couple to build a non-sexual bond as well as a sexual one.  It helps to build the couple's desire for one another, making intercourse in the remaining two weeks more special.  It also gives both partners a chance to rest, without feeling sexually inadequate.  They also emphasized the value of self-discipline in a drive as fundamental as the sexual drive. Birth Control In principle, birth control is permitted, so long as the couple is committed to eventually fulfilling the mitzvah to be fruitful and multiply (which, at a minimum, consists of having two children, one of each gender). The issue in birth control is not whether it is permitted, but what method is permitted.  It is well-established that methods that destroy the seed or block the passage of the seed are not permitted, thus condoms are not permitted for birth control.  However, the pill and IUD are acceptable forms of birth control under Jewish law. Abortion Jewish law not only permits, but in some circumstances requires abortion.  Where the mother's life is in jeopardy because of the unborn child, abortion is mandatory. An unborn child has the status of "potential human life" until its head has emerged from the mother.  Potential human life is valuable, and is not to be terminated casually, but it does not have as much value as a life in existence.  The Talmud makes no bones about this:  it says quite bluntly that if the fetus threatens the life of the mother, you cut it up within her body and remove it limb by limb if necessary, because its life is not as valuable as hers.  But once the head has emerged, you cannot take its life to save the mother's, because you cannot choose between one human life and another. Homosexuality Male homosexual relations are clearly forbidden by the Torah (Leviticus 18,22).  Such acts are condemned in the strongest possible terms, as abhorrent, and are punishable by death (Leviticus 20,13), as are the sins of adultery, incest, and bestiality. It is important to note, however, that it is homosexual acts that are forbidden, not homosexual orientation.  The Torah focuses on a person's actions rather than a person's desires.  A man's desire to have sex with another man is no more a sin than his desire to have sex with another man's wife, so long as he does not act upon that desire.  In fact, Jewish tradition recognizes that a person who chooses not to do something because it is forbidden is worthy of more merit than someone who simply chooses not to do it because he does not feel like doing it; thus, a man who feels such desires but does not act upon them is worthy of more merit in that regard than a man who does not feel such desires. Interestingly, female homosexual relations are not specifically mentioned by the Written Torah, but are only forbidden in the general prohibition of "the [lewd] practices of Egypt" (Leviticus 18,3, translated "the doings of the land of Egypt" in the JPS Bible). 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Hebrew Alphabet

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Letters of Alefbet | Vowels and Points | Styles of Writing | Transliteration | Numerical Values Hebrew Alphabet Level:  Basic The Hebrew and Yiddish languages use a different alphabet from English.  The picture below illustrates the Hebrew alphabet, in Hebrew alphabetical order.  Note that Hebrew is written from right to left, rather than left to right as in English, so Alef is the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet and Tav is the last.  The Hebrew alphabet is often called the "alefbet", because of its first two letters. Letters of the Alefbet If you are familiar with Greek, you will no doubt notice substantial similarities in letter names and in the order of the alphabet. The "Kh" and the "Ch" are pronounced as in German or Scottish, a throat clearing noise, not as the "ch" in "chair". Note that there are two versions of some letters.  Kaf, Mem, Nun, Pe, and Tzade all are written differently when they appear at the end of a word from when they appear in the beginning or middle of the word.  The version used at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem, etc.  The version of the letter on the left is the final version.  In all cases except Final Mem, the final version has a long tail. Vowels and Points Like most early Semitic alphabetic writing systems, the alefbet has no vowels.  People who are fluent in the language do not need vowels to read Hebrew, and most things written in Hebrew in Israel are written without vowels.  However, the rabbis realized the need for aids to pronunciation, so they developed a system of dots and dashes known as points.  These dots and dashes are written above, inside, or below the letter, in ways that do not alter the spacing of the line.  Text containing these markings is referred to as "pointed" text.  Below is an example of pointed text.  For emphasis, the points in the illustration are written in blue, and are somewhat larger than they would ordinarily be written. The line of text at the right would be pronounced (in Sephardic pronunciation, which is what most people today use):  "V'ahavta l'rayahkhah kamokha" (And you shall love your neighbor as yourself, Leviticus 19,18). Note that some Hebrew letters have two pronunciations.  Bet, Kaf, and Pe have a "hard" sound (the first sound) and a "soft" sound (the second sound).  In pointed texts, these letters have dots in the center when they are to be pronounced with the hard sound.  See the example of pointed text above.  In Ashkenazic pronunciation (the pronunciation used by many Orthodox Jews and by older Jews), Tav also has a soft sound, and is pronounced as an "s" when it does not have a dot.  Vav, usually a consonant pronounced as a "v", is sometimes a vowel pronounced "oo" or "oh".  When it is pronounced "oo", pointed texts have a dot in the middle.  When it is pronounced "oh", pointed texts have a dot on top.  See the example of pointed text above.  Shin is pronounced "sh" when it has a dot over the right branch and "s" when it has a dot over the left branch.  Other letters do not change pronunciation. Styles of Writing The style of writing illustrated above is the one most commonly seen in Hebrew books.  It is referred to as block print or sometimes Assyrian text. For sacred documents, such as torah scrolls or the scrolls inside tefillin and mezuzot, there is a special writing style with "crowns" (crows-foot-like marks coming up from the upper points) on many of the letters.  This style of writing is known as STA"M (an abbreviation for "Sifrei Torah, Tefillin, and Mezuzot," which is where you will see that style of writing.  For more information about the STA"M alphabet, including illustrations and relevant rules, see Hebrew Alphabet used in writing STA"M. There is another style used for handwriting, in much the same way that cursive is used for the Latin (English) alphabet.  This modern script style is illustrated at the right.  This script style is the most popular today, but some Jews in the Orient use a script that is rather similar to the Rashi script illustrated in the next paragraph. Another style is used in certain texts to distinguish the body of the text from commentary upon the text.  This style is known as Rashi Script, in honor of Rashi, the most popular commentator on the Torah and the Talmud.  The alefbet at the right is an example of Rashi Script. Transliteration The process of writing Hebrew words in the Latin (English) alphabet is known as transliteration.  Transliteration is more an art than a science, and opinions on the correct way to transliterate words vary widely.  This is why the Jewish festival of lights (in Hebrew, Chet-Nun-Kaf-He) is spelled Chanukah, Chanukkah, Hanuka, and many other interesting ways.  Each spelling has a legitimate phonetic and orthographic basis; none is right or wrong from a linguist's viewpoint, though some are more remote from Hebrew's early pronunciation. Numerical Values Each letter in the alefbet has a numerical value.  These values can be used to write numbers, as the Romans used some of their letters (I, V, X, L, C, M) to represent numbers.  Alef through Yod have the values 1 through 10.  Yod through Qof have the values 10 through 100, counting by 10s.  Qof through Tav have the values 100 through 400, counting by 100s.  Final letters have the same value as their non-final counterparts.  The number 11 would be rendered Yod-Alef, the number 12 would be Yod-Bet, the number 21 would be Kaf-Alef, the word Torah (Tav-Vav-Resh-He) has the numerical value 611, etc.  The only significant oddity in this pattern is the number 15, which if rendered as 10+5 would be a name of God, so it is normally written Tet-Vav (9+6). Because of this system of assigning numerical values to letters, every word has a numerical value.  There is an entire discipline of Jewish mysticism known as Gematria that is entirely devoted to finding hidden meanings in the numerical values of words.  For example, the number 18 is very significant, because it is the numerical value of the word Chai, meaning life.  Donations to Jewish charities are routinely made in multiples of 18 for that reason.  It may be pointed out that the numerical value of Vav (often transliterated as W) is 6, and therefore WWW has the numerical value of 6+6+6, which is equivalent to life! Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment? 

Torah

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Written Torah | Torah Scrolls | Chumash | Talmud | Other Writings Torah Level:  Basic The word "Torah" is a tricky one, because it can mean different things in different contexts.  In its most limited sense, "Torah" refers to the Five Books of Moses:  Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  But the word "torah" can also be used to refer to the entire Hebrew Bible (the body of scripture known to non-Jews as the Old Testament and to Jews as the Tanakh or Written Torah), or in its broadest sense, to the whole body of Jewish law and teachings. Written Torah To Jews, there is no "Old Testament" (an offensive term suggesting that God's Word has been replaced by a newer and better "testament").  The books that Christians call the New Testament are not part of our Hebrew scriptures (they were written in Greek in a spirit quite alien to Hebrew thought).  Our Bible is also known to us as the Written Torah. This is a list of the books of Written Torah, in the order in which they appear in the best old Hebrew manuscripts, with the Hebrew name of the book, a translation of the Hebrew name (where it is not the same as the English name), and English names of the books (where it is not the same as the Hebrew name).  The Hebrew names of the first five books are derived from the first few words of the book.  The text of each book is more or less the same in Jewish translations as what appears in Christian bibles, although there are many slight differences in the numbering of verses and chapters and many highly significant differences in the translations; this is meaningful enough that we recommend studying only in the more reliable Jewish translations. TORAH (The Law): Bereishith (In the beginning) (Genesis) Shemoth (The names) (Exodus) Vayiqra (And He called) (Leviticus) Bamidbar (In the wilderness) (Numbers) Devarim (The words) (Deuteronomy) NEVI'IM (The Prophets): Yehoshua (Joshua) Shoftim (Judges) Shmuel (I &II Samuel) Melakhim (I & II Kings) Yeshayah (Isaiah) Yirmyah (Jeremiah) Yechezqel (Ezekiel) The Twelve (treated as one book) Hoshea (Hosea) Yoel (Joel) Amos Ovadyah (Obadiah) Yonah (Jonah) Mikhah (Micah) Nachum Chavaqquq (Habbakkuk) Tzefanyah (Zephaniah) Chaggai Zekharyah (Zechariah) Malakhi KETHUVIM (The Writings): Divrei Ha-Yamim (The words of the days) (Chronicles) Tehillim (Psalms) Iyov (Job) Mishlei (Proverbs) Ruth Shir Ha-Shirim (Song of Songs) Qoheleth (the author's name) (Ecclesiastes) Eikhah (Lamentations) Esther Daniel Ezra and Nechemyah (Nehemiah) (treated as one book) Written Torah is often referred to as the Tanakh, which is an acrostic of Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. Torah Scrolls The scriptures that we use in services are to be written in scrolls on specially prepared skins of kosher animals.  They are always hand-written, in attractive Hebrew calligraphy with "crowns" (crows-foot-like marks coming up from the upper points) on many of the letters.  You are not supposed to touch the parchment on these scrolls:  some say because they are too holy; some say because the parchment, made from animal skins, is a source of ritual defilement; others say because your fingers' sweat has acids that will damage the parchment over time. Instead, you follow the text with a pointer, called a Yad.  "Yad" means hand in Hebrew, and the pointer usually is in the shape of a hand with a pointing index finger.  When not being read, the scrolls are protected by a fabric covering or a decorated cylindrical box, often ornamented with silver crowns on the handles of the scrolls and other decorations. The scrolls are kept in a cabinet in the synagogue called an "ark", as in Ark of the Covenant, not as in Noah's Ark.  The words are different and unrelated in Hebrew.  The former is an acrostic of "aron kodesh", meaning holy cabinet, while the latter is an English translation of the Hebrew word "teyvat" meaning container. The Torah scrolls that we read from in synagogue are unpointed text, with no vowels or musical notes, so the ability to read a passage from a scroll is a valuable skill, and usually requires substantial advance preparation (reviewing the passage in a text with points).  See Hebrew Alphabet for more on pointed and unpointed texts. Chumash The Five Books of Moses are often printed in a form that corresponds to the division into weekly readings (called parashiyot in Hebrew).  Scriptures bound in this way are generally referred to as a chumash.  The word "chumash" comes from the Hebrew root meaning five.  Sometimes, a chumash is simply a collection of the five books of the Torah alone bound in a single volume; but often, a chumash includes the haftarah portions inserted after each week's parashah and popular commentaries, and is bound in five small volumes. Talmud In addition to the written scriptures we have an "Oral Torah", a tradition explaining what the Five Books of Moses mean and how to interpret them and apply the Laws.  Orthodox Jews believe God taught the Oral Torah to Moses, and he taught it to others, and others taught it to others down to the present day.  This tradition was maintained in oral form only until about the 2d century C.E., when much of the oral law was compiled and written down in a document called the Mishnah. Over the next few centuries, authoritative commentaries elaborating on the Mishnah and recording the rest of the oral law were written down in Israel and Babylon.  These additional commentaries are known as the Tosefta, Mekhileta, Sifra, Sifre, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud.  The last was completed at about 500 C.E. The two largest works are the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud.  The Babylonian one is more comprehensive, and is the one most people mean when they refer to The Talmud. The Mishnah is divided into six sections called sedarim (in English, orders).  Each seder contains one or more divisions called masekhtot (in English, tractates).  There are 63 masekhtot in the Mishnah.  Most, though not all, of these masekhtot have been addressed in the Talmud.  Although these divisions seem to indicate subject matter, it is important to note that the Mishnah and the Talmud tend to engage in quite a bit of free-association, thus widely diverse subjects may be discussed in a seder or masekhtah.  Below is the division of the Mishnah into sedarim and masekhtot: Zera`im (Seeds), dealing with agricultural laws Berakhot Pe'ah Demai Kil'ayim Shevi`it Terumot Ma`aserot Ma`aser Sheni Challah `Orlah Biqqurim Mo`ed (Festival), dealing with shabbat and festivals Shabbat `Eruvin Pesachim Sheqalim Yoma Sukkah Betsah Rosh Hashanah Ta`anit Megillah Mo`ed Qatan Chagigah Nashim (Women), dealing with marriage, divorce, and contracts Yevamot Ketubot Nedarim Nazir Sotah Gittin Qiddushin Neziqqin (Damages), dealing with financial laws and courts Bava Qamma Bava Metsi`a Bava Batra Sanhedrin Makkot Shavu`ot `Eduyyot `Avodah Zarah 'Avot (also known as Pirkei Avot, Ethics of the Fathers) Horayot Kodashim (Holy Things), dealing with sacrifices and the Temple Zevachim Menachot Chullin Bekhorot `Arakhin Temurah Keretot Me`ilah Tamid Middot Qinnim Taharot (Purities), dealing with laws of ritual purity and impurity Kelim 'Ohalot Nega`im Parah Taharot Miqva'ot Niddah Makhshirin Zavim Tevul-Yom Yadayim `Oqatsin Other Writings In addition to these works, we have midrashim, which are basically stories expanding on incidents in the Bible to derive principles of Jewish law or to teach moral lessons.  For example, there is a midrash about why Moses was not a good speaker (he put coals in his mouth as a child as a way of proving that he was not greedy), and another one about Abram discovering monotheism and rejecting his father's idolatry (that is a nice one:  he smashes up all his father's idols except the big one, then blames the mess on the big one, as a way of showing his father that the idols do not really have any power).  Some of them fill in gaps in the narrative.  For example, in Genesis 22,2, why does God say, "thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac"?  Would not the name alone be enough?  One story says that the narrative is skipping out Abraham's responses.  "Take thy son." "Which one?" "Thine only son." "But I have two!" "Whom thou lovest." "I love them both!" "Even Isaac." We also have a mystical tradition, known as Kabbalah.  The primary written work in the Kabbalistic tradition is the Zohar.  Traditionally, rabbis discouraged teaching this material to anyone under the age of 40, because it is too likely to be misinterpreted by anyone without sufficient grounding in the basics. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?