Qorbanot: Secrifices and Offerings

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Frequently Asked Questions | Qorbanot | Purposes of Qorbanot | Types of Qorbanot:  · Olah:  Burnt Offering  · Zebach Sh'lamim:  Peace Offering  · Chatat:  Sin Offering  · Asham:  Guilt Offering  · Food and Drink Offerings  · Parah Adumah:  The Red Heifer Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings Level:  Advanced Frequently Asked Questions We begin by answering the questions most commonly asked on these subjects, and then proceed to a more comprehensive discussion of the subject of qorbanot. Do Jews offer sacrifices today? No.  No Jews today are known to publicly offer any kind of animal sacrifice or offerings, nor have Jews offered sacrifices since the second century C.E. There are Orthodox Jews in Israel who practice the techniques of ritual sacrifice, so that the knowledge will not be lost; a remembrance of the Pesach sacrifice was slaughtered in 5760 (2000 C.E.), within sight of the Temple Mount.  But this is not at all the same thing as offering a sacrifice.    When did Jews stop offering sacrifices, and why? For the most part, the practice of sacrifice stopped in the year 70 C.E., when the Roman army destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, the place where sacrifices were offered.  The practice was briefly resumed during the Jewish War of 132-135 C.E., but was ended permanently after that war was lost.  There were also a few communities that continued sacrifices for a while after that time. We stopped offering sacrifices because we do not have a proper place to offer them.  The Torah specifically commands us not to offer sacrifices wherever we feel like it; we are only permitted to offer sacrifices in the place that God has chosen for that purpose (Deuteronomy 12,13-14).  It would be a sin to offer sacrifices in any other place. The last place appointed by God for this purpose was the Temple in Jerusalem; but the Temple has been destroyed, and a mosque has been erected in the place where it stood.  Until we observant Jews recapture the Temple Mount and rebuild the Temple, we cannot offer sacrifices. Orthodox Jews believe that when the Mashiach comes, sacrifices will be renewed.  Some of us think it better not to wait for him, but to be about the business of rebuilding the Temple and reinstituting the sacrifices; in any event, it is permitted to bring all of the regular order of sacrifices today on the Temple Mount at the place where the altar was, even now when the Temple is no longer standing.   Do Jews want to resume sacrifices? Orthodox Jews do.  There are several places in our daily prayer services where we pray for the restoration of the Temple and the resumption of its rituals, including the rituals of sacrifice.   Did the kohanim (priests) or anybody else eat the animals offered? Yes!  Most types of offerings could and should be eaten.  Certain types were eaten by the kohanim only, or by a specific kohein.  Other types were eaten by the person offering the sacrifice and his family, friends, and guests (particularly the poor who could not afford sacrifices themselves).  The types of offerings and who was permitted to eat them will be discussed further below.   Isn't sacrifice cruelty to animals? Animal sacrifice is no more cruel than slaughtering animals for food.  In fact, the procedure for slaughtering livestock for sacrificial purposes is the same as the procedure used for slaughtering animals for food, a procedure commanded by God that is designed to be as quick and painless as possible (see Shechitah).  The Torah is very concerned about the proper treatment of animals, and would never advocate a cruel procedure for animal sacrifice.   How do Jews obtain forgiveness without sacrifices? Forgiveness of sins against God alone is simply obtained through repentance and confession of one's sins in words before God Himself, and amending one's future conduct according to the halakhah; when one sins against a person (as by theft or injury), he must also do his best to make restitution to the person injured and gain his forgiveness, as well as repenting, confessing, and making amends in future conduct before God.  Gentiles may be surprised to learn that this is as fully effective for them as for Jews (which is the main point of the Book of Jonah, of course; see Jonah 3,10, in particular).  When the Temple stands, some sins require offerings as explained below in addition to this repentance process, not instead of it; without this repentance process, offerings for sins are totally ineffective, and must be brought again when one has truly repented. It is important to emphasize that under the Torah, sacrifice was never the exclusive means of obtaining forgiveness, was not in and of itself sufficient to obtain forgiveness, and in certain circumstances was not even effective to obtain forgiveness.  This will be discussed further below. In current Jewish practice, prayer and study of the laws of sacrifices has taken the place of sacrifices.  In accordance with the words of Hosea, we render instead of bullocks the offering of our lips (Hosea 14,3; please note that the KJV translates this somewhat differently).  While dedicating the Temple, King Solomon referred to the idea that prayer can be used to obtain forgiveness (I Kings 8,46-50).  Our prayer services are in many ways designed to parallel the sacrificial practices; for example, we have an extra service on shabbat, to parallel the extra shabbat offering.  For more information about this, see Jewish Liturgy.   But isn't a blood sacrifice required in order to obtain forgiveness? Not at all, as we have just seen in the previous paragraph.  Although animal sacrifice is one means of obtaining forgiveness, there are non-animal offerings as well, and there are other means for obtaining forgiveness that do not involve sacrifices at all. The passage that people ordinarily cite for the notion that blood is required is Leviticus 17,11:  "For the soul of the flesh is in the blood and I have assigned it for you upon the altar to provide atonement for your souls; for it is the blood that atones for the soul".  But the passage that this verse comes from is not about atonement, but about dietary laws, and the passage only says that blood is used to obtain atonement--not that blood is the sole means for obtaining atonement.  Leviticus 17,10-12 could be paraphrased as "Do not eat blood, because blood is used in atonement rituals; therefore, do not eat blood".   Were sacrifices a symbol of the savior to come? Not according to the Torah.  That is a Christian teaching that has no basis in Jewish thought.  Jews do not believe in a savior, and do not believe that sacrifice has anything to do with a savior or mashiach. Quite the contrary, some would say that the original institution of sacrifice had more to do with the Torah's past than with its future.  Maimonides suggested that the entire sacrificial cult in Torah was ordained as an accommodation to man's primitive desires; but once God included it in the Torah, it became a permanent part of our required worship of God. Sacrifice was an ancient and universal human expression of religion.  Sacrifice existed among the Hebrews long before the giving of the Torah.  When the laws of sacrifice were laid down in the Torah, the pre-existence of a system of sacrificial offering was understood, and sacrificial terminology was used without any explanation.  The Torah, rather than creating the institution of sacrifice, carefully circumscribes and limits the practice, permitting it only in certain places, at certain times, in certain manners, by certain people, and for certain purposes.  Maimonides suggested that these limitations are designed to wean a primitive people away from the debased rites of their idolatrous neighbors.   Qorbanot In ancient times, a major component of Jewish ritual was the offering of qorbanot.  An entire order of the Talmud (Kodashim, that is, Holy Things) is devoted to the subject. The word "qorbanot" is usually translated as "sacrifices" or "offerings"; however, both of these terms suggest a loss of something or a giving up of something, and although that is certainly a part of the ritual, that is not at all the literal meaning of the Hebrew word.  The word qorbanot comes from the root Qof-Resh-Bet, which means to draw near, and indicates the primary purpose of offerings:  to draw us near to God. Parts of the rituals involved in the offering of qorbanot were performed exclusively by the kohanim (priests).  These rituals were only performed in the Temple in Jerusalem.  The procedures could not be performed by anyone else, and could not be performed in any other place.  Because the Temple no longer exists, we can no longer offer qorbanot. There are three basic concepts underlying qorbanot.  The first the aspect of giving.  A qorban requires the renunciation of something that belongs to the person making the offering.  Thus, sacrifices are made from domestic animals, not wild animals (because wild animals do not belong to anyone).  Likewise, offerings of food are ordinarily in the form of flour or meal, which requires substantial work to prepare. Another important concept is the element of substitution.  The idea is that the thing being offered is a substitute for the person making the offering, and the things that are done to the offering are things that should have been done to the person offering.  The offering is in some sense "punished" in place of the offerer.  It is interesting to note that whenever the subject of qorbanot is addressed in the Torah, the name of God used is the four-letter name indicating God's mercy. The third important concept is of coming closer.  The essence of sacrifice is to bring a person closer to God.   Purposes of Qorbanot Contrary to popular belief, the purpose of qorbanot is not simply to obtain forgiveness from sin.  When the Temple stands, every Jew who can is required to come to Jerusalem three times a year for special holidays that require bringing several different types of qorbanot, most of which are eaten by the celebrants with their family and friends.  These qorbanot bring the Jewish people together, and build both solidarity between us and our God on the one hand and among us on the other. Certain qorbanot are brought purely for the purpose of communing with God and becoming closer to Him.  Others are brought for the purpose of expressing thanks, love, or gratitude to God.  Others are used to cleanse a person of ritual impurity (which does not necessarily have anything to do with sin).  And yes, some qorbanot are brought for purposes of atonement. The atoning aspect of qorbanot is carefully circumscribed.  For the most part, qorbanot only expiate unintentional sins, that is, sins committed because a person forgot that this thing was a sin.  No atonement is needed for violations committed under duress, and for the most part, qorbanot cannot atone for a malicious, deliberate sin.  In addition, qorbanot have no expiating effect unless the person making the offering sincerely repents of his actions before making the offering, and makes restitution to any person harmed by his sin.   Types of Qorbanot There are many different types of qorbanot, and the laws related to them are detailed and complicated.  This section will merely introduce some of the major types of qorbanot, their names, and their characteristics.  There are many subtypes within these classifications, and some other types that do not fit neatly into these categories.   Olah:  Burnt Offering Perhaps the best-known class of offerings is the burnt offering.  It was the oldest and commonest sacrifice, and represented submission to God's will.  The Hebrew word for burnt offering is olah, from the root Ayin-Lamed-Heh, meaning ascension.  It is the same root as the word aliyah, which is used to describe moving to Israel or ascending to the podium to read from a Torah scroll.  An olah is completely burnt on the outer altar; no part of it is eaten by anyone.  Because the offering represents complete submission to God's will, the entire offering is given to God (i.e., it cannot be used after it is burnt).  It expresses a desire to commune with God.  An olah could be brought from cattle, sheep, goats, or even doves.  Gentiles were allowed to bring an olah in our Temple, unlike the rest of the kinds of qorbanot, which were reserved for Jews alone within the Temple itself; it should be remembered, however, that Gentiles are permitted to build their own place for qorbanot, and offer them to God themselves, and are promised reward for this meritorious behavior (it is disappointing that Gentiles have so far neglected this opportunity, by the way).   Zebach Sh'lamim:  Peace Offering A peace offering is an offering expressing thanks or gratitude to God for His bounties and mercies.  The Hebrew term for this type of offering is zebach sh'lamim (or sometimes just sh'lamim), which is related to the word shalom, meaning peace or wholeness.  A representative portion of the offering is burnt on the altar, a portion is given to the kohanim, and the rest is eaten by the offerer and his family; thus, everyone gets a part of this offering.  This category of offerings includes thanksgiving-offerings, free will-offerings, and offerings made after fulfillment of a vow.  Note that this class of offerings has nothing to do with sin, and could properly be brought by the most righteous of the righteous.   Chatat:  Sin Offering A sin offering is an offering to atone for and purge a sin.  It is an expression of sorrow for the error and a desire to be reconciled with God.  The Hebrew term for this type of offering is chatat, from the word "chayt", meaning missing the mark.  A chatat could only be offered for unintentional sins committed through carelessness or ignorance, not for intentional malicious sins.  The size of the offering varied according to the nature of the sin and the financial means of the sinner.  Some chatatot are individual and some are communal.  Communal offerings represent the interdependence of the community, and the idea that we are all responsible for each other's sins.  A few special chatatot could not be eaten, but for the most part, for the average person's personal sin, the chatat was eaten by the kohanim.   Asham:  Guilt Offering A guilt offering is an offering to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust.  The Hebrew word for a guilt offering is asham.  When there was doubt as to whether a person committed a sin, the person would bring an asham, rather than a chatat, because bringing a chatat would constitute admission of the sin, and the person would have to be punished for it.  If a person brought an asham and later discovered that he had in fact committed the sin, he would have to bring a chatat at that time.  An asham was eaten by the kohanim.   Food and Drink Offerings A meal offering (minchah) represented the devotion of the fruits of man's work to God, because it was not a natural product, but something created through man's effort.  A representative piece of the offering was burnt on the fire of the altar, but the rest was eaten by the kohanim. There are also offerings of undiluted wine, referred to as nesekh.   Parah Adumah:  The Red Heifer In 1997 and again in 2002, red heifers were born in Israel.  These births received quite a bit of press coverage, and there were many questions asking about their significance. The ritual of the red heifer (in Hebrew, parah adumah) is part of one of the most mysterious rituals described in the Torah.  The purpose of this ritual is to purify people from the defilement caused by contact with the dead.  The ritual is described in Numbers 19.  If you find it difficult to understand, do not feel bad; the sages themselves described it as beyond human understanding.  What is so interesting about this ritual is that it purifies the impure, but it also renders the pure impure (i.e., everybody who participates in the ritual becomes impure). It is believed by many that this ritual will be performed by the Mashiach when he comes, because we have all suffered the defilement of contact with the dead.  Thus, the existence of a red heifer is a possible, but not definite, sign of the Mashiach.  If the Mashiach were coming, there would be a red heifer, but there could be a red heifer without the Mashiach coming. Unfortunately, in the end, both of heifers we have had so far were disqualified.     Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Kashrut: Jewish Dietary Laws

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Why Observe? | How Difficult? | Fundamental Rules | Details | Forbidden Animals | Kosher slaughtering | Draining of blood | Fats & Nerves | Meat & Dairy | Utensils | Grape Products | Kashrut Certification Kashrut:  Jewish Dietary Laws Level:  Intermediate Kashrut is the body of Jewish law dealing with what foods we can and cannot eat and how those foods must be prepared and eaten.  "Kashrut" comes from the Hebrew root Kaf-Shin-Resh, meaning fit, proper, or correct.  It is the same root as the more commonly known word "kosher", which describes food that meets these standards.  The word "kosher" can also be used, and often is used, to describe ritual objects that are made in accordance with Jewish law and are fit for ritual use. There is no such thing as "kosher-style" food.  Kosher is not a style of cooking.  Chinese food can be kosher if it is prepared in accordance with Jewish law, and there are many fine kosher Chinese restaurants in Philadelphia and New York.  Traditional Ashkenazic Jewish foods like knishes, bagels, blintzes, and matzah ball soup can all be non-kosher if not prepared in accordance with Jewish law.  When a restaurant calls itself "kosher-style", it usually means that the restaurant serves these traditional Jewish foods, and it almost invariably means that the food is not actually kosher. Food that is not kosher is commonly referred to as "treyf" (literally, torn, from the commandment not to eat animals that have been torn by other animals). Why Do We Observe the Laws of Kashrut? Many modern Jews think that the laws of kashrut are simply primitive health regulations that have become obsolete with modern methods of food preparation.  There is no question that some of the dietary laws have some beneficial health effects.  For example, the laws regarding kosher slaughter are so sanitary that kosher butchers and slaughterhouses have been exempted from many USDA regulations. However, health is not the only reason for Jewish dietary laws.  Many of the laws of kashrut have no known connection with health.  To the best of our modern scientific knowledge, there is no reason why camel or rabbit meat (both treyf) is any less healthy than cow or goat meat.  In addition, some of the health benefits to be derived from kashrut were not made obsolete by the refrigerator.  For example, there is some evidence that eating meat and dairy together interferes with digestion, and no modern food preparation technique reproduces the health benefit of the kosher law of eating them separately. The short answer to why we observe these laws is:  because the Torah says so.  The Torah does not specify any reason for these laws, and for a Torah-observant, traditional Jew, there is no need for any other reason.  Some have suggested that the laws of kashrut fall into the category of "chukkim", laws for which there is no reason.  We show our obedience to God by following these laws even though we do not know the reason.  Others, however, have tried to ascertain God's reason for imposing these laws. In his book "To Be a Jew" (an excellent resource on traditional Judaism), Rabbi Hayim Halevy Donin suggests that the dietary laws are designed as a call to holiness.  The ability to distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil, pure and defiled, the sacred and the profane, is very important in Judaism.  Imposing rules on what you can and cannot eat ingrains that kind of self control.  In addition, it elevates the simple act of eating into a religious ritual.  The Jewish dinner table is often compared to the Temple altar in rabbinic literature. How Difficult is it to Keep Kosher? People who do not keep kosher often say how difficult it is.  Actually, keeping kosher is not particularly difficult in and of itself; what makes it difficult to keep kosher is that the rest of the world does not do so. As we shall see below, the basic underlying rules are fairly simple.  If you buy your meat at a kosher butcher and buy only kosher certified products at the market, the only thing you need to think about is the separation of meat and dairy. Keeping kosher only becomes difficult when you try to eat in a non-kosher restaurant, or at the home of a person who does not keep kosher.  In those situations, your lack of knowledge about your host's ingredients and the food preparation techniques make it very difficult to keep kosher.  Some commentators have pointed out, however, that this may well have been part of what God had in mind:  to make it more difficult for us to socialize with those who do not share our religion. The Fundamental Rules Although the details of kashrut are extensive, the laws all derive from a few fairly simple, straightforward rules: Certain animals may not be eaten at all.  This restriction includes the flesh, organs, eggs, and milk of the forbidden animals. Of the animals that may be eaten, the birds and mammals must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law. All blood must be drained from the meat or broiled out of it before it is eaten. Certain parts of permitted animals may not be eaten. Meat (the flesh of birds and mammals) cannot be eaten with dairy.  Fish, eggs, fruits, vegetables, and grains can be eaten with either meat or dairy. Utensils that have come into contact with meat may not be used with dairy, and vice versa.  Utensils that have come into contact with non-kosher food may not be used with kosher food.  This applies only where the contact occurred while the food was hot. Grape products made by non-Jews may not be eaten or drunk. The Details Animals that may not be eaten Of the "beasts of the earth" (which basically refers to land mammals with the exception of swarming rodents), you may eat any animal that has cloven hooves and chews its cud.  Leviticus 11,3; Deuternomy 14,6.  Any land mammal that does not have both of these qualities is forbidden.  The Torah specifies that the camel, the rock badger, the hare and the pig are not kosher because each lacks one of these two qualifications.  Sheep, cattle, goats, and deer are kosher. Of the things that are in the waters, you may eat anything that has fins and scales.  Leviticus 11,9; Deuteronomy 14,9.  Thus, shellfish such as lobsters, oysters, shrimp, clams, and crabs are all forbidden.  Fish like tuna, carp, salmon, and herring are all permitted. For birds, the criteria are less clear.  The Torah lists forbidden birds (Leviticus 11,13-19; Deuteronomy 14,11-18), but does not specify why these particular birds are forbidden.  All of the birds on the list are birds of prey or scavengers, thus the rabbis inferred that this was the basis for the distinction.  Other birds are permitted, such as chicken, geese, ducks, and turkeys. Of the "winged swarming things" (winged insects), a few are specifically permitted (Leviticus 11,21). Rodents, reptiles, amphibians, and insects (except as mentioned above) are all forbidden (Leviticus 11,29-30, 42-43). Some authorities require a post-mortem examination of the lungs of cattle, to determine whether the lungs are free from adhesions.  If the lungs are free from such adhesions, the animal is deemed "glatt" (that is, "smooth").  In certain circumstances, an animal can be kosher without being glatt; however, the stringency of keeping "glatt kosher" has become increasingly common in recent years. As mentioned above, any product derived from these forbidden animals, such as their milk, eggs, fat, or organs, also cannot be eaten.  Rennet, an enzyme used to harden cheese, is often obtained from non-kosher animals, thus kosher hard cheese can be difficult to find. Kosher slaughtering The mammals and birds that may be eaten must be slaughtered in accordance with Jewish law; "as I have commanded thee" (Deuteronomy 12,21) is according to the Oral Torah on kosher slaughter given to Moses at Sinai.  We may not eat animals that died of natural causes (Deuteronomy 14,21) or that were killed by other animals (Exodus 22,30).  In addition, the animal must have no disease or flaws in the organs at the time of slaughter.  These restrictions do not apply to fish, which may be merely "gathered" (Numbers 11,22). Ritual slaughter is known as shechitah, and the person who performs the slaughter is called a shochet, both from the Hebrew root Shin-Chet-Tet, meaning to slaughter.  The method of slaughter is a quick, deep stroke across the throat with a perfectly sharp blade with no nicks or unevenness.  This method is painless, causes unconsciousness within seconds, and is widely recognized as the most humane method of slaughter possible. Another advantage of shechitah is that ensures rapid, complete draining of the blood, which is also necessary to render the meat kosher. The shochet is not simply a butcher; he must be a pious man, well-trained in Jewish law, particularly as it relates to kashrut.  In smaller, more remote communities, the rabbi and the shochet were often the same person. Draining of Blood The Torah prohibits consumption of blood.  Leviticus 7,26-27; Leviticus 17,10-14.  This is the only dietary law that has a reason specified in Torah:  we do not eat blood because the life of the animal is contained in the blood.  This applies only to the blood of birds and mammals, not to fish blood.  Thus, it is necessary to remove all blood from the flesh of kosher animals. The first step in this process occurs at the time of slaughter.  As mentioned above, shechitah allows for rapid draining of most of the blood. The remaining blood must be removed by salting, and then either broiling or emersing the salted meat in boiling water till it whitens.  Liver may only be koshered by the broiling method, because it has so much blood in it and such complex blood vessels.  This final process must be completed within 72 hours after slaughter, and before the meat is frozen or ground.  Most butchers and all frozen food vendors take care of the salting for you, but you should always check this when you are buying someplace you are unfamiliar with. An egg that contains a blood spot may not be eaten.  This is not very common, but one finds them once in a while.  It is a good idea to break an egg into a container and check it before you put it into a heated pan, because if you put a blood-stained egg into a heated pan, the pan becomes non-kosher. Forbidden Fats and Nerves The sciatic nerve and its adjoining blood vessels may not be eaten.  The process of removing this nerve is time consuming and not very cost-effective, so most kosher slaughterers simply sell the hind quarters to non-kosher butchers. A certain kind of fat, known as chelev, which surrounds the vital organs and the liver, may not be eaten.  Kosher butchers remove this.  Modern scientists have found biochemical differences between this type of fat and the permissible fat around the muscles and under the skin. Separation of Meat and Dairy On three separate occasions, the Torah tells us not to "boil a kid in its mother's milk" (Exodus 23,19; Exodus 34,26; Deuteronomy 14,21).  The Oral Torah explains that this passage prohibits eating meat and dairy together.  The rabbis extended this prohibition to include not eating milk and poultry together.  It is, however, permissible to eat fish and dairy together, and it is quite common.  It is also permissible to eat dairy and eggs together.  According to some views, it is not permissible to eat meat and fish together, but we are not certain of the reason for that restriction (it has been attributed to medical opinion in the Middle Ages, for example). This separation includes not only the foods themselves, but the utensils, pots and pans with which they are cooked, the plates and flatware from which they are eaten, the dishwashers or dishpans in which they are cleaned, and the towels on which they are dried.  A kosher household will have at least two sets of pots, pans, and dishes:  one for meat and one for dairy.  See Utensils below for more details. One must wait a significant amount of time between eating meat and dairy.  Opinions differ, and vary from one or two to six hours.  This is because fatty residues and meat particles tend to cling to the mouth.  From dairy to meat, however, one need only rinse one's mouth and eat a neutral solid like bread, unless the dairy product in question is also of a type that tends to stick in the mouth. The Yiddish words fleishig (meat), milchig (dairy), and pareve (neutral) are commonly used to describe food or utensils that fall into one of those categories. Note that even the smallest quantity of dairy (or meat) in something renders it entirely dairy (or meat) for purposes of kashrut.  For example, most margarines are dairy for kosher purposes, because they contain a small quantity of whey or other dairy products to give it a dairy-like taste.  Animal fat is considered meat for purposes of kashrut.  You should read the ingredients very carefully, even if the product is kosher-certified. Utensils Utensils (pots, pans, plates, flatware, etc., etc.) must also be kosher.  A utensil picks up the kosher "status" (meat, dairy, pareve, or treyf) of the food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it, and transmits that status back to the next food that is cooked in it or eaten off of it.  Thus, if you cook chicken soup in a saucepan, the pan becomes meat.  If you thereafter use the same saucepan to heat up some warm milk, the fleishig status of the pan is transmitted to the milk, and the milchig status of the milk is transmitted to the pan, making both the pan and the milk a forbidden mixture. Kosher status can be transmitted from the food to the utensil or from the utensil to the food only in the presence of heat, thus if you are eating cold food in a non-kosher establishment, the condition of the plates is not an issue.  Likewise, you could use the same knife to slice cold cuts and cheese, as long as you clean it in between, but this is not really a recommended procedure, because it increases the likelihood of mistakes. Stove tops and sinks routinely become non-kosher utensils, because they routinely come in contact with both meat and dairy in the presence of heat.  It is necessary, therefore, to use dishpans when cleaning dishes (do not soak them directly in the sink) and to use separate spoon rests and trivets when putting things down on the stove top. Dishwashers are a kashrut problem.  If you are going to use a dishwasher in a kosher home, you either need to have separate dish racks or you need to run the dishwasher in between meat and dairy loads. You should use separate towels and pot holders for meat and dairy.  Routine laundering koshers such items, so you can simply launder them between using them for meat and dairy. Certain kinds of utensils can be "koshered" if you make a mistake and use it with both meat and dairy.  Consult a rabbi for guidance if this situation occurs. Grape Products The restrictions on grape products derive from the laws against using products of idolatry.  Wine was commonly used in the rituals of all ancient religions, and wine was routinely sanctified for pagan purposes while it was being processed.  For this reason, use of wines and other grape products made by non-Jews was prohibited.  (Whole grapes are not a problem, nor are whole grapes in fruit cocktail). For the most part, this rule only affects wine and grape juice.  This becomes a concern with many fruit drinks or fruit-flavored drinks, which are often sweetened with grape juice.  You may also notice that it is virtually impossible to find kosher baking powder, because baking powder is made with cream of tartar, a by-product of wine making. Kashrut Certification The task of keeping kosher is greatly simplified by widespread kashrut certification.  Approximately 3/4 of all prepackaged foods have some kind of kosher certification, and most major brands have reliable Orthodox certification. The symbols at right are all widely-accepted kashrut certifications commonly found on products throughout the United States.  With a little practice, it is very easy to spot these marks on food labels, usually near the product name, occasionally near the list of ingredients.  There are many other certifications available, of varying degrees of strictness. The most controversial certification is the K, a plain letter K found on products asserted to be kosher.  All other kosher certification marks are trademarked and cannot be used without the permission of the certifying organization.  The certifying organization stands behind the kashrut of the product.  But you cannot trademark a letter of the alphabet, so any manufacturer can put a K on a product.  For example, Jell-O brand gelatin puts a K on its product, even though almost every reliable Orthodox authority agrees that Jell-O is not kosher. It is becoming increasingly common for kosher certifying organizations to indicate whether the product is fleishig, milchig, or pareve.  If the product is dairy, it will frequently have a D or the word Dairy next to the kashrut symbol.  If it is meat, the word Meat or an M may appear near the symbol.  If it is pareve, the word Pareve (or Parev) may appear near the symbol (Not a P!  That means kosher for Passover!).  If no such clarification appears, you should read the ingredient list carefully to determine whether the product is meat, dairy, or pareve. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Kosher Sex

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Attitude Towards Sexuality | Laws of Separation | Birth Control | Abortion | Homosexuality Kosher Sex Level:  Advanced Note:  This page addresses issues of Jewish law that may not be appropriate for younger readers.  Please exercise appropriate discretion. Attitude Towards Sexuality In Jewish law, sex is not considered inherently shameful, sinful, or obscene.  Sex is not seen as a necessary evil for the sole purpose of procreation.  Although sexual desire comes from the yetzer hara (the so-called "evil impulse"), it is no more evil than hunger or thirst, which also come from the yetzer hara.  Like hunger, thirst, or other basic needs, sexual desire must be controlled, channeled, and satisfied in the proper time, place, and manner.  But when sexual desire is satisfied between a husband and wife at the proper time and out of mutual love and desire, sexual relations are actually a mitzvah (a Biblical commandment, see Exodus 21,10 referring to "conjugal rights" and the commentary on it). Sexual enjoyment (whether involving intercourse or mere hand holding) is permissible for Jews only within the context of marriage.  For Torah, sex is not merely a way of experiencing physical pleasure.  It is properly an act of immense significance, which requires commitment and responsibility.  The requirement of marriage before sex ensures that sense of commitment and responsibility.  The Torah forbids all sexual contact short of intercourse outside of the context of marriage, recognizing that such contact is likely lead to intercourse and is damaging in and of itself.  Jews are rabbinically forbidden to even engage in sexual fantasy, let alone masturbation alone or mutual masturbation outside of marriage. The primary purpose of sexual relations is to reinforce the loving marital bond between husband and wife.  The first and foremost purpose of marriage is intimate long-term companionship (not just bearing children in a family context), and sexual relations play an important role in that.  Procreation is also a reason for sex, but it is not the only reason; after a woman is no longer able to bear children, she is still expected to have an active sex life, just as during her child-bearing years (the idea that old folks should not or do not have sexual relations is an alien one in a Torah context).  Sex between husband and wife is also recommended (and even required) at other times when conception is impossible, such as when the woman is pregnant or when the woman is using a permissible form of contraception.  Kosher sexual relations are not necessarily limited to those that can lead to pregnancy, either:  anal and oral relations are permitted, if enjoyable to both marital partners, though Jewish men have a separate commandment to reproduce, and should generally end up having normal vaginal intercourse. In the Written Torah, one of the words used for sex between husband and wife comes from the root Yod-Dalet-Ayin, meaning to know, which vividly illustrates that proper Jewish sexuality involves both the heart and mind, not merely the body.  (The English expression "sexual knowledge" seems to be derived from this Biblical idea, but generally has a negative connotation lacking in the Hebrew.) Nevertheless, Torah does not ignore the physical component of sexuality.  The need for physical compatibility between husband and wife is recognized in Jewish law.  A Jewish couple must meet at least once before the marriage, and if either prospective spouse finds the other physically unattractive, they should not marry. Sexual relations should only be experienced in a time of joy.  Sex for selfish personal satisfaction, without regard for the partner's pleasure, is wrong and evil.  A man may never force his wife to have sex.  A couple may not have sexual relations while drunk or quarreling.  Sex may never be used as a weapon against a spouse, either by depriving the spouse of sex or by compelling it.  It is a serious offense to use sex (or lack thereof) to punish or manipulate a spouse. Sex is the woman's right, not the man's.  A man has a duty to give his wife sex regularly and to ensure that sex is pleasurable for her.  He is also obligated to watch for signs that his wife wants sex, and to offer it to her without her asking for it.  The woman's right to sexual intercourse is referred to as onah, and is one of a wife's three basic rights (the others are food and clothing), which a husband may not reduce.  The Talmud specifies both the quantity and quality of sex that a man must give his wife.  It specifies the frequency of sexual obligation based on the husband's occupation, although this obligation can be modified in the ketubah (marriage contract).  A man may not take a vow to abstain from sex for an extended period of time, and may not take a journey for an extended period of time, because that would deprive his wife of sexual relations.  In addition, a husband's consistent refusal to engage in sexual relations is grounds for compelling a man to divorce his wife, even if the couple has already fulfilled the halakhic obligation to procreate. Although sex is the woman's right, she does not have absolute discretion to withhold it from her husband.  A woman may not withhold sex from her husband as a form of punishment, and if she does, the husband may divorce her without paying the substantial divorce settlement provided for in the ketubah. Although some sources take a more narrow view, the general view of halakhah is that any sexual conduct that does not regularly involve ejaculation outside the vagina is permissible.  As one passage in the Talmud states, "a man may do whatever he pleases with his wife".  In fact, there are passages in the Talmud that encourage foreplay to arouse the woman, and oral and anal sex are permitted (though not necessarily desirable), if they are not to the exclusion of vaginal sex. Niddah:  The Laws of Separation One of the most mysterious areas of Jewish sexual practices is the law of niddah, separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  These laws are also known as taharat ha-mishpachah, family purity.  Few people outside of the Orthodox community are even aware that these laws exist, which is unfortunate, because these laws provide many undeniable benefits.  The laws of niddah are not deliberately kept secret; they are simply unknown because most non-Orthodox Jews do not continue their religious education beyond bar mitzvah, and these laws address subjects that are not really suitable for discussion with children under the age of 13. According to the Torah, a man is forbidden from having sexual intercourse with a niddah, that is, a menstruating woman.  The law of niddah is the only law of ritual purity that continues to be observed today.  At one time, a large portion of Jewish law revolved around questions of ritual purity and impurity.  The other laws mainly had significance in the context of the Temple, and are not applicable today. The time of separation begins at the first sign of blood and ends in the evening after the woman's seventh "clean day".  This separation lasts about 12 to 14 days.  The rabbis broadened this prohibition, providing that a man may not even touch his wife during this time.  Weddings must be scheduled carefully, so that the woman is not in a state of niddah on her wedding night. At the end of the period of niddah, as soon as possible after nightfall after the seventh clean day, the woman must immerse herself in a kosher mikveh, a ritual pool.  The mikveh was traditionally used to cleanse a person of various forms of ritual impurity.  Today, it is used almost exclusively for this purpose and as part of the ritual of conversion.  It is important to note that the purpose of the mikveh is solely ritual purification, not physical cleanliness; in fact, immersion in the mikveh is done only after a woman has bathed and shampooed and combed her hair.  The mikveh is such an important part of traditional Jewish ritual life that a new community is required to build a mikveh before they build a synagogue. The Torah does not specify the reason for the laws of niddah, but this period of abstention has both physical and psychological benefits. The fertility benefits of this practice are obvious and undeniable.  In fact, it is remarkable how closely these laws parallel the advice given by medical professionals today.  When couples are having trouble conceiving, modern medical professionals routinely advise them to abstain from sex during the two weeks around a woman's period (to increase the man's sperm count at a time when conception is not possible), and to have sex on alternate nights during the remaining two weeks.  When you combine this basic physical benefit with the psychological benefit of believing that you are fulfilling God's will, it is absolutely shocking that more couples with fertility problems do not attempt this practice.  The rejection of this practice by the liberal movements of Judaism is not a matter of "informed choice", but simply a matter of ignorance or blind prejudice. In addition, women who have sexual intercourse during their menstrual period are more vulnerable to a variety of vaginal infections, as well as increased risk of cervical cancer. But the benefits that the rabbis have always emphasized are the psychological ones, not the physical ones.  The rabbis noted that a two-week period of abstention every month forces a couple to build a non-sexual bond as well as a sexual one.  It helps to build the couple's desire for one another, making intercourse in the remaining two weeks more special.  It also gives both partners a chance to rest, without feeling sexually inadequate.  They also emphasized the value of self-discipline in a drive as fundamental as the sexual drive. Birth Control In principle, birth control is permitted, so long as the couple is committed to eventually fulfilling the mitzvah to be fruitful and multiply (which, at a minimum, consists of having two children, one of each gender). The issue in birth control is not whether it is permitted, but what method is permitted.  It is well-established that methods that destroy the seed or block the passage of the seed are not permitted, thus condoms are not permitted for birth control.  However, the pill and IUD are acceptable forms of birth control under Jewish law. Abortion Jewish law not only permits, but in some circumstances requires abortion.  Where the mother's life is in jeopardy because of the unborn child, abortion is mandatory. An unborn child has the status of "potential human life" until its head has emerged from the mother.  Potential human life is valuable, and is not to be terminated casually, but it does not have as much value as a life in existence.  The Talmud makes no bones about this:  it says quite bluntly that if the fetus threatens the life of the mother, you cut it up within her body and remove it limb by limb if necessary, because its life is not as valuable as hers.  But once the head has emerged, you cannot take its life to save the mother's, because you cannot choose between one human life and another. Homosexuality Male homosexual relations are clearly forbidden by the Torah (Leviticus 18,22).  Such acts are condemned in the strongest possible terms, as abhorrent, and are punishable by death (Leviticus 20,13), as are the sins of adultery, incest, and bestiality. It is important to note, however, that it is homosexual acts that are forbidden, not homosexual orientation.  The Torah focuses on a person's actions rather than a person's desires.  A man's desire to have sex with another man is no more a sin than his desire to have sex with another man's wife, so long as he does not act upon that desire.  In fact, Jewish tradition recognizes that a person who chooses not to do something because it is forbidden is worthy of more merit than someone who simply chooses not to do it because he does not feel like doing it; thus, a man who feels such desires but does not act upon them is worthy of more merit in that regard than a man who does not feel such desires. Interestingly, female homosexual relations are not specifically mentioned by the Written Torah, but are only forbidden in the general prohibition of "the [lewd] practices of Egypt" (Leviticus 18,3, translated "the doings of the land of Egypt" in the JPS Bible). 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Hebrew Alphabet

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Letters of Alefbet | Vowels and Points | Styles of Writing | Transliteration | Numerical Values Hebrew Alphabet Level:  Basic The Hebrew and Yiddish languages use a different alphabet from English.  The picture below illustrates the Hebrew alphabet, in Hebrew alphabetical order.  Note that Hebrew is written from right to left, rather than left to right as in English, so Alef is the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet and Tav is the last.  The Hebrew alphabet is often called the "alefbet", because of its first two letters. Letters of the Alefbet If you are familiar with Greek, you will no doubt notice substantial similarities in letter names and in the order of the alphabet. The "Kh" and the "Ch" are pronounced as in German or Scottish, a throat clearing noise, not as the "ch" in "chair". Note that there are two versions of some letters.  Kaf, Mem, Nun, Pe, and Tzade all are written differently when they appear at the end of a word from when they appear in the beginning or middle of the word.  The version used at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem, etc.  The version of the letter on the left is the final version.  In all cases except Final Mem, the final version has a long tail. Vowels and Points Like most early Semitic alphabetic writing systems, the alefbet has no vowels.  People who are fluent in the language do not need vowels to read Hebrew, and most things written in Hebrew in Israel are written without vowels.  However, the rabbis realized the need for aids to pronunciation, so they developed a system of dots and dashes known as points.  These dots and dashes are written above, inside, or below the letter, in ways that do not alter the spacing of the line.  Text containing these markings is referred to as "pointed" text.  Below is an example of pointed text.  For emphasis, the points in the illustration are written in blue, and are somewhat larger than they would ordinarily be written. The line of text at the right would be pronounced (in Sephardic pronunciation, which is what most people today use):  "V'ahavta l'rayahkhah kamokha" (And you shall love your neighbor as yourself, Leviticus 19,18). Note that some Hebrew letters have two pronunciations.  Bet, Kaf, and Pe have a "hard" sound (the first sound) and a "soft" sound (the second sound).  In pointed texts, these letters have dots in the center when they are to be pronounced with the hard sound.  See the example of pointed text above.  In Ashkenazic pronunciation (the pronunciation used by many Orthodox Jews and by older Jews), Tav also has a soft sound, and is pronounced as an "s" when it does not have a dot.  Vav, usually a consonant pronounced as a "v", is sometimes a vowel pronounced "oo" or "oh".  When it is pronounced "oo", pointed texts have a dot in the middle.  When it is pronounced "oh", pointed texts have a dot on top.  See the example of pointed text above.  Shin is pronounced "sh" when it has a dot over the right branch and "s" when it has a dot over the left branch.  Other letters do not change pronunciation. Styles of Writing The style of writing illustrated above is the one most commonly seen in Hebrew books.  It is referred to as block print or sometimes Assyrian text. For sacred documents, such as torah scrolls or the scrolls inside tefillin and mezuzot, there is a special writing style with "crowns" (crows-foot-like marks coming up from the upper points) on many of the letters.  This style of writing is known as STA"M (an abbreviation for "Sifrei Torah, Tefillin, and Mezuzot," which is where you will see that style of writing.  For more information about the STA"M alphabet, including illustrations and relevant rules, see Hebrew Alphabet used in writing STA"M. There is another style used for handwriting, in much the same way that cursive is used for the Latin (English) alphabet.  This modern script style is illustrated at the right.  This script style is the most popular today, but some Jews in the Orient use a script that is rather similar to the Rashi script illustrated in the next paragraph. Another style is used in certain texts to distinguish the body of the text from commentary upon the text.  This style is known as Rashi Script, in honor of Rashi, the most popular commentator on the Torah and the Talmud.  The alefbet at the right is an example of Rashi Script. Transliteration The process of writing Hebrew words in the Latin (English) alphabet is known as transliteration.  Transliteration is more an art than a science, and opinions on the correct way to transliterate words vary widely.  This is why the Jewish festival of lights (in Hebrew, Chet-Nun-Kaf-He) is spelled Chanukah, Chanukkah, Hanuka, and many other interesting ways.  Each spelling has a legitimate phonetic and orthographic basis; none is right or wrong from a linguist's viewpoint, though some are more remote from Hebrew's early pronunciation. Numerical Values Each letter in the alefbet has a numerical value.  These values can be used to write numbers, as the Romans used some of their letters (I, V, X, L, C, M) to represent numbers.  Alef through Yod have the values 1 through 10.  Yod through Qof have the values 10 through 100, counting by 10s.  Qof through Tav have the values 100 through 400, counting by 100s.  Final letters have the same value as their non-final counterparts.  The number 11 would be rendered Yod-Alef, the number 12 would be Yod-Bet, the number 21 would be Kaf-Alef, the word Torah (Tav-Vav-Resh-He) has the numerical value 611, etc.  The only significant oddity in this pattern is the number 15, which if rendered as 10+5 would be a name of God, so it is normally written Tet-Vav (9+6). Because of this system of assigning numerical values to letters, every word has a numerical value.  There is an entire discipline of Jewish mysticism known as Gematria that is entirely devoted to finding hidden meanings in the numerical values of words.  For example, the number 18 is very significant, because it is the numerical value of the word Chai, meaning life.  Donations to Jewish charities are routinely made in multiples of 18 for that reason.  It may be pointed out that the numerical value of Vav (often transliterated as W) is 6, and therefore WWW has the numerical value of 6+6+6, which is equivalent to life! Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment? 

Torah

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Written Torah | Torah Scrolls | Chumash | Talmud | Other Writings Torah Level:  Basic The word "Torah" is a tricky one, because it can mean different things in different contexts.  In its most limited sense, "Torah" refers to the Five Books of Moses:  Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  But the word "torah" can also be used to refer to the entire Hebrew Bible (the body of scripture known to non-Jews as the Old Testament and to Jews as the Tanakh or Written Torah), or in its broadest sense, to the whole body of Jewish law and teachings. Written Torah To Jews, there is no "Old Testament" (an offensive term suggesting that God's Word has been replaced by a newer and better "testament").  The books that Christians call the New Testament are not part of our Hebrew scriptures (they were written in Greek in a spirit quite alien to Hebrew thought).  Our Bible is also known to us as the Written Torah. This is a list of the books of Written Torah, in the order in which they appear in the best old Hebrew manuscripts, with the Hebrew name of the book, a translation of the Hebrew name (where it is not the same as the English name), and English names of the books (where it is not the same as the Hebrew name).  The Hebrew names of the first five books are derived from the first few words of the book.  The text of each book is more or less the same in Jewish translations as what appears in Christian bibles, although there are many slight differences in the numbering of verses and chapters and many highly significant differences in the translations; this is meaningful enough that we recommend studying only in the more reliable Jewish translations. TORAH (The Law): Bereishith (In the beginning) (Genesis) Shemoth (The names) (Exodus) Vayiqra (And He called) (Leviticus) Bamidbar (In the wilderness) (Numbers) Devarim (The words) (Deuteronomy) NEVI'IM (The Prophets): Yehoshua (Joshua) Shoftim (Judges) Shmuel (I &II Samuel) Melakhim (I & II Kings) Yeshayah (Isaiah) Yirmyah (Jeremiah) Yechezqel (Ezekiel) The Twelve (treated as one book) Hoshea (Hosea) Yoel (Joel) Amos Ovadyah (Obadiah) Yonah (Jonah) Mikhah (Micah) Nachum Chavaqquq (Habbakkuk) Tzefanyah (Zephaniah) Chaggai Zekharyah (Zechariah) Malakhi KETHUVIM (The Writings): Divrei Ha-Yamim (The words of the days) (Chronicles) Tehillim (Psalms) Iyov (Job) Mishlei (Proverbs) Ruth Shir Ha-Shirim (Song of Songs) Qoheleth (the author's name) (Ecclesiastes) Eikhah (Lamentations) Esther Daniel Ezra and Nechemyah (Nehemiah) (treated as one book) Written Torah is often referred to as the Tanakh, which is an acrostic of Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim. Torah Scrolls The scriptures that we use in services are to be written in scrolls on specially prepared skins of kosher animals.  They are always hand-written, in attractive Hebrew calligraphy with "crowns" (crows-foot-like marks coming up from the upper points) on many of the letters.  You are not supposed to touch the parchment on these scrolls:  some say because they are too holy; some say because the parchment, made from animal skins, is a source of ritual defilement; others say because your fingers' sweat has acids that will damage the parchment over time. Instead, you follow the text with a pointer, called a Yad.  "Yad" means hand in Hebrew, and the pointer usually is in the shape of a hand with a pointing index finger.  When not being read, the scrolls are protected by a fabric covering or a decorated cylindrical box, often ornamented with silver crowns on the handles of the scrolls and other decorations. The scrolls are kept in a cabinet in the synagogue called an "ark", as in Ark of the Covenant, not as in Noah's Ark.  The words are different and unrelated in Hebrew.  The former is an acrostic of "aron kodesh", meaning holy cabinet, while the latter is an English translation of the Hebrew word "teyvat" meaning container. The Torah scrolls that we read from in synagogue are unpointed text, with no vowels or musical notes, so the ability to read a passage from a scroll is a valuable skill, and usually requires substantial advance preparation (reviewing the passage in a text with points).  See Hebrew Alphabet for more on pointed and unpointed texts. Chumash The Five Books of Moses are often printed in a form that corresponds to the division into weekly readings (called parashiyot in Hebrew).  Scriptures bound in this way are generally referred to as a chumash.  The word "chumash" comes from the Hebrew root meaning five.  Sometimes, a chumash is simply a collection of the five books of the Torah alone bound in a single volume; but often, a chumash includes the haftarah portions inserted after each week's parashah and popular commentaries, and is bound in five small volumes. Talmud In addition to the written scriptures we have an "Oral Torah", a tradition explaining what the Five Books of Moses mean and how to interpret them and apply the Laws.  Orthodox Jews believe God taught the Oral Torah to Moses, and he taught it to others, and others taught it to others down to the present day.  This tradition was maintained in oral form only until about the 2d century C.E., when much of the oral law was compiled and written down in a document called the Mishnah. Over the next few centuries, authoritative commentaries elaborating on the Mishnah and recording the rest of the oral law were written down in Israel and Babylon.  These additional commentaries are known as the Tosefta, Mekhileta, Sifra, Sifre, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud.  The last was completed at about 500 C.E. The two largest works are the Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud.  The Babylonian one is more comprehensive, and is the one most people mean when they refer to The Talmud. The Mishnah is divided into six sections called sedarim (in English, orders).  Each seder contains one or more divisions called masekhtot (in English, tractates).  There are 63 masekhtot in the Mishnah.  Most, though not all, of these masekhtot have been addressed in the Talmud.  Although these divisions seem to indicate subject matter, it is important to note that the Mishnah and the Talmud tend to engage in quite a bit of free-association, thus widely diverse subjects may be discussed in a seder or masekhtah.  Below is the division of the Mishnah into sedarim and masekhtot: Zera`im (Seeds), dealing with agricultural laws Berakhot Pe'ah Demai Kil'ayim Shevi`it Terumot Ma`aserot Ma`aser Sheni Challah `Orlah Biqqurim Mo`ed (Festival), dealing with shabbat and festivals Shabbat `Eruvin Pesachim Sheqalim Yoma Sukkah Betsah Rosh Hashanah Ta`anit Megillah Mo`ed Qatan Chagigah Nashim (Women), dealing with marriage, divorce, and contracts Yevamot Ketubot Nedarim Nazir Sotah Gittin Qiddushin Neziqqin (Damages), dealing with financial laws and courts Bava Qamma Bava Metsi`a Bava Batra Sanhedrin Makkot Shavu`ot `Eduyyot `Avodah Zarah 'Avot (also known as Pirkei Avot, Ethics of the Fathers) Horayot Kodashim (Holy Things), dealing with sacrifices and the Temple Zevachim Menachot Chullin Bekhorot `Arakhin Temurah Keretot Me`ilah Tamid Middot Qinnim Taharot (Purities), dealing with laws of ritual purity and impurity Kelim 'Ohalot Nega`im Parah Taharot Miqva'ot Niddah Makhshirin Zavim Tevul-Yom Yadayim `Oqatsin Other Writings In addition to these works, we have midrashim, which are basically stories expanding on incidents in the Bible to derive principles of Jewish law or to teach moral lessons.  For example, there is a midrash about why Moses was not a good speaker (he put coals in his mouth as a child as a way of proving that he was not greedy), and another one about Abram discovering monotheism and rejecting his father's idolatry (that is a nice one:  he smashes up all his father's idols except the big one, then blames the mess on the big one, as a way of showing his father that the idols do not really have any power).  Some of them fill in gaps in the narrative.  For example, in Genesis 22,2, why does God say, "thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac"?  Would not the name alone be enough?  One story says that the narrative is skipping out Abraham's responses.  "Take thy son." "Which one?" "Thine only son." "But I have two!" "Whom thou lovest." "I love them both!" "Even Isaac." We also have a mystical tradition, known as Kabbalah.  The primary written work in the Kabbalistic tradition is the Zohar.  Traditionally, rabbis discouraged teaching this material to anyone under the age of 40, because it is too likely to be misinterpreted by anyone without sufficient grounding in the basics. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment? 

Glossary of Jewish Terminology

Prev | Table of Contents # A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Glossary of Jewish Terminology Following is a partial list of Hebrew, Yiddish, and other Jewish terms used on this web site.  Unless otherwise specified, the terms are Hebrew. We have attempted to provide pronunciations for most of these terms.  Some of the pronunciations may not be strictly, technically correct, but they are the way we usually hear the terms pronounced.  Unfortunately, what is usually heard among English speakers is a mix of Ashkenazic and Sefardic pronunciations.  We have tried to present the Sefardic pronunciation as much as possible, but some things are never heard pronounced that way! Guide to pronunciation: ' - a vowel that is not quite pronounced; a very short e a - as in at ah - as in father ahy - as in my aw -as in awe (often used as awr to sound like or) ay - as in way e - as in bet ee - as in me i - as in it oh - as in hope oo - as in food uh - as in up u - as in put kh - as in Scottish or German, a throat clearing noise tsch - as in chair ts - as in paints - # - 13 Principles of Faith The most widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs, compiled by Maimonides. 613 Commandments Judaism teaches that God gave the Jews 613 commandments, which are binding on Jews but not on non-Jews.  See Halakhah:  Jewish Law; A List of the 613 Mitzvot. - A - Abortion See Kosher Sex - Abortion. Adar The twelfth month of the Jewish year, occurring in February/March.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Adoption There is no formal procedure for adoption in Judaism, but one who raises another person's child is acknowledged as the parent in many important ways. Adoshem A substitute for a name of God.  See The Name of God. Agunah Literally, anchored.  A woman whose husband disappeared without divorcing her. Akiba (uh-KEE-buh) One of the greatest rabbis recorded in the Talmud. Al Cheit (AHL CHAYT) Literally, for the sin.  A confession of community sins recited repeatedly on Yom Kippur.  See Yom Kippur Liturgy. Alef-Bet (AH-lef-bet) The Hebrew alphabet.  The name is derived from the first two letters of the Hebrew Alphabet. Aliyah (uh-LEE-uh; ah-lee-AH) Literally, ascension.  1) Reading from the Torah; (or reciting a blessing over the reading) during services, which is considered an honor (generally referred to in English as having or getting an aliyah and pronounced uh-LEE-uh).  See also Bar Mitzvah.  2) Emigrating to Israel (generally referred to in English as making aliyah and pronounced ah-lee-AH). Amidah (uh-MEE-duh) Literally, standing.  A prayer that is the center of any Jewish religious service.  Also known as the Shemoneh Esrei or the Tefillah.  See Jewish Liturgy. Animals See Treatment of Animals; Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Aninut The period of mourning between the time of death and the time of burial. Arbah Minim Literally, four species.  Fruit and branches used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Ark An acronym of aron kodesh, lit., holy chest.  The cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept.  The word has no connection with Noah's Ark, which is "teyvat" in Hebrew. Aron Kodesh (AH-rohn KOH-desh) Literally, holy chest.  The cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept. Asham (ah-SHAHM) A guilt offering.  A type of sacrifice used to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust. Ashkenazic Jews (ahsh-ken-AH-zik) Jews from eastern France, Germany, and Eastern Europe, and their descendants. Av The fifth month of the Jewish year, occurring in July/August.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Avelut The period of mourning after the burial of a parent, child, sibling, or spouse. - B - Baal Shem Tov (bahl shem tohv) Literally, Master of the Good Name.  Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer.  The founder of Chasidic Judaism. Bagel (BAY-g'l) Donut-shaped bread that is boiled before it is baked. Bar Kokhba (BAHR KOHKH-buh) Aramaic:  Son of a Star.  Simeon ben Kosiba, the leader of the last and most successful Jewish rebellion against Rome in 132-135 C.E.  He died in battle when the rebellion was defeated.  Rabbi Akiba believed he was the Mashiach (Messiah). Bar Mitzvah (BAHR MITS-vuh) Literally, son of the commandment.  A boy who has reached the age of 13 and is consequently obligated to observe the commandments.  Also, a ceremony marking the fact that a boy has reached this age. Bat Mitzvah (BAHT MITS-vuh) Literally, daughter of the commandment.  A girl who has reached the age of 12 and is consequently obligated to observe the commandments.  Also, a ceremony marking the fact that a girl has reached this age. B.C.E. Before the Common (or Christian) Era.  An alternative way of saying B.C. (before Christ), since we know that Jesus was not the Christ (messiah). Beginning of Day A day on the Jewish calendar begins at sunset.  When a date is given for a Jewish holiday, the holiday actually begins at sunset on the preceding day.  See When Holidays Begin. Beit Din (BAYT DIN) Literally, house of judgment.  A rabbinical court made up of three observant Jews who resolve business disputes under Jewish law and determine whether a prospective convert is ready for conversion. Beit Hillel (BAYT HIL-el; BAYT hil-EL) Literally, House of Hillel.  A school of thought during the Talmudic period, generally contrasted with the stricter views of Beit Shammai. Beit Knesset (BAYT K'NESS-et) Literally, house of assembly.  A Hebrew term for a synagogue. Beit Midrash (BAYT MID-rahsh) Literally, house of study.  A place set aside for study of sacred texts such as the Torah and the Talmud, generally a part of the synagogue or attached to it. Beit Shammai (BAYT SHAH-mahy) Literally, House of Shammai.  A school of thought during the Talmudic period, generally contrasted with the more lenient views of Beit Hillel. Beliefs See What Do Jews Believe?; The Nature of God; Human Nature; Kabbalah. Bentsch (BENTSCH) Yiddish:  bless.  To recite a blessing.  Usually refers to the recitation of the birkat ha-mazon (grace after meals).  See Prayers and Blessings. Berakhah (B'RUHKH-khah; b'ruhkh-KHAH); pl:  Berakhot (b'ruhkh-KHOHT) A blessing.  A prayer beginning with the phrase "barukh atah . . ." (blessed art Thou . . .). Bible See Torah. Bimah (BEE-muh) The pedestal on which the Torah scrolls are placed when they are being read in the synagogue; i.e., the pulpit. Binah (bee-NAH) Intuition, understanding, intelligence.  A quality that women supposedly have in greater degree than men.  Also, in kabbalistic thought, one of the Ten Sefirot. Birkat Ha-Mazon (BEER-kaht hah mah-ZOHN) Literally, blessing of the food.  Grace after meals.  The recitation of birkat ha-mazon is commonly referred to as bentsching. Birth See Birth and the First Month of Life. Birth Control See Kosher Sex - Birth Control. Blessing See Prayers and Blessings. Blintz (BLINTS) Yiddish.  A thin, crepe-like pancake rolled around a filling of potato and onion, cheese, or fruit. Books See Bibliography; Torah. Brit Milah (BRIT MEE-lah) Literally, covenant of circumcision.  The ritual circumcision of a male Jewish child on the 8th day of his life or of a male convert to Judaism.  Frequently referred to as a brit or bris. Burial See Care for the Dead. Burnt Offering A type of sacrifice that represents complete submission to God's will.  It is completely consumed by fire on the altar.  In Hebrew, it is called an olah. - C - Calendar See Jewish Calendar. C.E. Common (or Christian) Era.  Used instead of A.D., because A.D.  means the Year of the Lord, and we know that Jesus is not the LORD. Chai (KHAHY, rhymes with Hi!) Literally, living or life.  The word is often used as a design on jewelry and other ornaments.  Donations to charity are often made in multiples of 18, the numerical value of the word. Challah (KHAH-luh) A sweet, eggy, yellow bread, usually braided, which is served on Sabbaths and holidays. Chametz (KHUH-mitz) Literally, leaven.  Leavened grain products, which may not be owned or consumed during Passover. Chanukkah (KHAH-nik-uh; KHAH-noo-kah) Literally, dedication.  An eight day holiday celebrating the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem after it was defiled by the Selucid Greeks. Chanukkat Ha-Bayit (KHAH-noo-KAHT hah BAHY-eet) Literally, dedication of the house.  A brief ceremony dedicating a Jewish household, during which the mezuzah is affixed to the doorposts. Charity See Tzedakah. Charoset (khah-ROH-set) A mixture of fruit, wine, and nuts eaten at the Passover seder to symbolize mortar used by the Jewish slaves in Egypt. Chasidism (KHAH-sid-ism); Chasidic (khah-SID-ic) From the word "Chasid" meaning pious.  A branch of Orthodox Judaism that maintains a lifestyle separate from the non-Jewish world.  See Movements of Judaism. Chatat (khah-TAHT) A sin offering.  A type of sacrifice used to atone for and expiate unintentional sins. Chazzan (KHAH-zen) Cantor.  The person who leads the congregation in prayer.  May be a professional or a member of the congregation. Chelev (KHE-lev) The fat surrounding organs, as distinguished from the fat surrounding muscles.  Forbidden to be eaten under the dietary laws. Chevra Kaddisha (KHEV-ruh kah-DEESH-uh) Literally, holy society.  An organization devoted to caring for the dead. Chillul Ha-Shem (khil-LOOL hah SHEM) Literally, profanation of the Name.  Causing God or Judaism to come into disrespect, or causing a person to violate a commandment.  See The Name of God. Chol Ha-Mo'ed (KHOHL hah MOH-ed; KHOHL hah moh-AYD) The intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot, when work is permitted. Cholent (TSCHUH-lent) A slow cooked stew of beef, beans, and barley, which is served on Sabbaths. Chukkim (khook-EEM) Jewish religious laws for which no reason is given in the Torah.  Some believe that they are meant to show our obedience to God. Chumash (KHUH-mish) Literally, five.  A compilation of the first five books of the Bible and readings from the prophets, organized in the order of the weekly Torah portions. Chuppah (KHU-puh) Today, the wedding canopy, symbolic of the groom's home, under which the main part of the wedding ceremony is performed. Circumcision Removal of the foreskin, a commandment in Judaism performed on the 8th day of a male child's life or upon conversion to Judaism.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Clothing See Tzitzit and Tallit; Yarmulke. Commandments See Halakhah:  Jewish Law; A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments). Confirmation A ceremony performed in some Reform and Conservative synagogues to replace or supplement the Bar Mitzvah. Conservative One of the major movements of Judaism, accepting the binding nature of Jewish law but believing that the law can change. Contraception See Kosher Sex - Birth Control. Conversion See Who is a Jew?; Jewish Attitudes Towards Non-Jews; Conversion. Cooking See Jewish Cooking; Kashrut. Counting of the Omer The counting of the days between Passover and Shavu'ot. - D - Dati (DAH-tee) The Hebrew word for religious Jews, used in Israel. Daven (DAH-ven) Yiddish:  Pray.  See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Days of Awe Ten days from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, a time for introspection and considering the sins of the previous year. Divorce See Divorce; Marriage. Dreidel A top-like toy used to play a traditional Chanukkah game. - E - Ein Sof (ayn sohf) Literally, without end.  In Jewish mysticism, the true essence of God, which is so transcendent that it cannot be described and cannot interact directly with the universe. Elokeynu A substitute for a name of God.  See The Name of God. Essenes A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Esther One of the heroes of the story of Purim.  Also, the book in the Bible that tells her story. Ethiopian Jews The Jews of Ethiopia, whose customs and practices are somewhat different from those of Ashkenazic or Sephardic Jews.  See Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews. Etrog (ET-rohg) A citrus fruit native to Israel, used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Evil Impulse See Human Nature - The Dual Nature. - F - Family Purity Laws relating to the separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also referred to as the laws of niddah or taharat ha-mishpachah. Fast Days See Yom Kippur; Tisha B'Av; Minor Fasts. Firstborn See Pidyon Ha-Ben:  Redemption of the Firstborn. Fleishig (FLAHYSH-ig) Yiddish:  meat.  Used to describe foods that contain meat and therefore cannot be eaten with dairy.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Food See Jewish Cooking; Kashrut. Four Species Fruit and branches used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Free Will See Human Nature - The Dual Nature. - G - G-d A way of avoiding writing a Name of God, to avoid the risk of the sin of erasing or defacing the Name.  See The Name of God, The Nature of God. Gefilte Fish (g'-FIL-tuh) Yiddish:  lit.stuffed fish.  A traditional Jewish dish consisting of a ball or cake of chopped up fish. Gemara (g'-MAHR-uh) Commentaries on the Mishnah.  The Mishnah and Gemara together are the Talmud. Gematria (g'-MAH-tree-uh) A field of Jewish mysticism finding hidden meanings in the numerical value of words. Gentiles See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Get (GET) A writ of divorce.  Also called a sefer k'ritut. Gezeirah (g'-ZAY-ruh) A law instituted by the rabbis to prevent people from unintentionally violating commandments. Gossip Gossiping is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Goy Literally, nation.  A non-Jew, that is, a member of one of the other nations.  There is nothing inherently insulting about the term; the word "goy" is used in the Torah to describe Israel.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Grace After Meals See Birkat Ha-Mazon. Grager (GREG-er; GRAG-er) A noisemaker used to blot out the name of Haman during the reading of the Megillah on Purim. Guide for the Perplexed Maimonides' masterpiece of Jewish philosophy and theology, written from the perspective of a Torah scholar conversant in Arab and Greek sciences and philosophy. Guilt Offering A type of sacrifice used to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust. - H - Haftarah (hahf-TOH-ruh) Literally, conclusion.  A reading from the Prophets, read along with the weekly Torah portion. Haggadah (huh-GAH-duh) The book read during the Passover Seder, telling the story of the holiday. Halakhah (huh-LUHKH-khuh) Literally, the path that one walks.  Jewish law.  The complete body of rules and practices that Jews are bound to follow, including biblical commandments, commandments instituted by the rabbis, and binding customs.  See also Torah, A List of the 613 Mitzvot. Hallel Literally, praise God.  Psalms 113-118, in praise of God, which are recited on certain holidays.  See Jewish Liturgy. Haman (HAY-men) The villain of the story of Purim. Hamentaschen (HAH-men-TAH-shen) Literally, Haman's pockets.  Triangular, fruit-filled cookies traditionally served or given as gifts during Purim. Haredi The Hebrew word for Ultra-Orthodox Jews, used in Israel. Ha-Shem (hah SHEM) Literally, The Name.  The Name of God, which is not pronounced.  The phrase "ha-Shem" is often used as a substitute for God's Name. Hatafat Dam Brit (hah-tah-FAHT DAHM BRIT) A symbolic circumcision of a person who has already been circumcised or who was born without a foreskin.  It involves taking a pinprick of blood from the part of the penis where the foreskin would normally have been attached.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Havdalah (Hahv-DAH-luh) Literally, separation, division.  A ritual marking the end of the Sabbath or a holiday. Hebrew See Hebrew Alphabet; Hebrew Language:  Root Words. Hillel (HIL-el; hil-EL) One of the greatest rabbis recorded in the Talmud.  His views of Jewish law are often contrasted with the stricter views of Shammai.  Also:  a Jewish college student organization under the auspices of B'nai Brith. Hiloni The Hebrew word for secular Jews, used in Israel. Holidays See Jewish Holidays and pages following it. Holishkes (HOH-lish-kuhs) Cabbage leaves stuffed with meatballs served in a tomato-based sweet and sour sauce. Hoshanah Rabba (hoh-SHAH-nuh RAH-buh) Literally, great hosanna.  The seventh day of Sukkot, on which seven circuits are made around the synagogue reciting a prayer with the refrain, "Hosha na!" (please save us!). Human Nature See Human Nature. - I - Image of God See Human Nature - In the Image of God; The Nature of God. Interfaith Marriage Marriage to a non-Jew is not recognized as "marriage" in Jewish law.  The increasing frequency of intermarriage is a source of great concern to traditional Jews.  See also Marriage. Iyar The second month of the Jewish year, occurring in April/May.  See Months of the Jewish Year. - J - Jew A person whose mother was a Jew or who has converted to Judaism.  According to the Reform movement, a person whose father is a Jew is also a Jew.  See Who Is a Jew? Jewish Law See Halakhah. Jewish Star The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism, also known as the Magen David, the Shield of David, or the Star of David. Judah Ha-Nasi (JOO-duh hah NAH-see) Compiler of the Mishnah. - K - Kabbalah (kuh-BAH-luh) Literally, tradition.  Jewish mystical tradition. Kaddish (KAH-dish) Aramaic:  holy.  A prayer in Aramaic praising God, commonly associated with mourning practices.  See also Jewish Liturgy. Kapparot Literally, atonements.  A custom during the Days of Awe. Karet (KAH-reht) The penalty of spiritual excision, imposed by God.  Certain sins, such as failure to circumcise, are so severe that one who violates them has no place in the World to Come. Kashrut (KAHSH-rut; KAHSH-root; kahsh-ROOT) From a root meaning fit, proper, or correct.  In English, mostly refers to Jewish dietary laws. Kavanah (kuh-VAH-nuh; kah-vah-NAH) Concentration, intent.  The frame of mind required for prayer or performance of a mitzvah. Kavod Ha-Met (kuh-VOHD hah MAYT) Literally, respect for the dead.  One of the purposes of Jewish practices relating to death and mourning. Keriyah (KREE-yuh) Literally, tearing.  The tearing of one's clothes upon hearing of the death of a close relative.  See Mourning. Ketubah (KTOO-buh) Literally, writing.  The Jewish marriage contract. Kiddush (KID-ish) Literally, sanctification.  A prayer recited over wine sanctifying the Sabbath or a holiday. Kiddush Ha-Shem (ki-DOOSH hah SHEM) Literally, sanctification of The Name.  Any deed that increases the respect accorded to God or Judaism, especially martyrdom.  See The Name of God. Kiddushin Literally, sanctification.  The first part of the two-part process of Jewish marriage, which creates the legal relationship without the mutual obligations. Kippah (KEY-puh) The skullcap worn by Jews, more commonly known as a yarmulke in English. Kislev The ninth month of the Jewish year, occurring in November/December.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Kittel (KIT-'l, rhymes with little, but the t is pronounced distinctly) The white robes in which the dead are buried, worn by some during Yom Kippur services. Knaydelach (KNAY-duhl-ahkh) Yiddish:  dumplings.  Commonly refers to matzah balls.  Can also be used as a term of affection for small children.  See Jewish Cooking. Knish (KNISH) Yiddish.  A potato and flour dumpling stuffed with potato and onion, chopped liver, or cheese. Kohein; (KOH-hayn) pl:  Kohanim (koh-HAHN-eem) Priest.  A descendant of Aaron, charged with performing various rites in the Temple.  This is not the same thing as a rabbi. Kol Nidre (KOHL NID-ray) Literally, all vows.  The evening service of Yom Kippur, or the prayer that begins that service. Kosher (KOH-sher) Literally, fit, proper, or correct.  Describes food that is permissible to eat under Jewish dietary laws.  Can also describe any other ritual object that is fit for use according to Jewish law. Kugel (KOO-gul; KI-gul) Yiddish:  pudding.  A casserole of potatoes, eggs, and onion, or a dessert of noodles, fruits, and nuts in an egg based pudding. - L - Ladino (Luh-DEE-noh) The "international language" of Sefardic Jews, based primarily on Spanish, with words taken from Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages, and originally written in the Hebrew Alphabet; today, written in Latin letters like Spanish. Latkes (LAHT-kuhs; LAHT-kees) Potato pancakes traditionally eaten during Chanukkah. Lashon Ha-Ra (LAH-shohn HAH-rah; luh-SHOHN hah-RAH) Literally, the evil tongue.  Sins against other people committed by speech, such as defamation, gossip, swearing falsely, and scoffing. L'Chayim (l'-KHAHY-eem) Literally, to life.  A common Jewish toast. Leap Year A year with an extra month, to realign the Jewish lunar calendar with the solar year.  See Jewish Calendar. Levi (LAY-vee); Levite (LEE-vahyt) A descendant of the tribe of Levi, which was set aside to perform certain duties in connection with the Temple. Liberal One of the most liberal movements of Judaism in the United Kingdom, but somewhat more traditional than the US Reform Movement. Life See Life, Death, and Mourning. Liturgy See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. L-rd A way of avoiding writing a Name of God, to avoid the risk of the sin of erasing or defacing the Name.  See The Name of God. Love See Love and Brotherhood. Lox (LAHKS) Smoked salmon.  Commonly served on a bagel. L'Shanah Tovah (li-SHAH-nuh TOH-vuh; li-shah-NAH toh-VAH) Literally, for a good year.  A common greeting during Rosh Hashanah and Days of Awe. Lulav (LOO-lahv) Literally, palm branch.  A collection of palm, myrtle, and willow branches, used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. - M - Ma'ariv (MAH-reev) Evening prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy. Magen David (mah-GAYN dah-VEED; MAH-gen DAH-vid; MOH-gen DAY-vid) Literally, shield of David.  The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Maimonides (mahy-MAH-ni-dees) Rabbenu Moshe ben Maimon, one of the greatest medieval Jewish scholars. Mamzer (MAHM-zer) The child of a marriage that is prohibited and invalid under Jewish law, such as an incestuous union. Marriage See Marriage; Interfaith Marriages; Kosher Sex; Divorce. Masekhtot A subdivision of the Mishnah and Talmud. Matzah (MAHTZ-uh) Unleavened bread eaten during Passover. Matzah Ball Soup Thin chicken soup with dumplings made from matzah meal. Matzah Meal Crumbs of matzah, commonly used in Jewish Cooking in much the same way that other cultures use flour or bread crumbs. Meal Offerings An offering of meal or grain. Mechitzah (m'-KHEETZ-uh) The wall or curtain separating men from women during religious services. Megillah (m'-GILL-uh) Literally, scroll.  One of five books of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Esther).  The remaining books are referred to as sefers (books).  Usually refers to the book of Esther.  See Purim. Melachah (m'-LUH-khuh) Literally, work.  Work involving creation or exercise of control over the environment, which is prohibited on Shabbat and certain holidays. Menorah (m'-NAW-ruh; me-NOH-ruh) A candelabrum.  Usually refers to the nine-branched candelabrum used to hold the Chanukkah candles.  Can also refer to the seven-branched candelabrum used in the Temple. Masorti The Hebrew word for Jews who are traditionally observant but not Orthodox, used in Israel. Mezuzah (m'-ZOO-zuh; m'-ZU-zuh) Literally, doorpost.  A case attached to the doorposts of houses, containing a scroll with passages of scripture written on it. Midrash (MID-rash) From a root meaning to study, to seek out, or to investigate.  Stories elaborating on incidents in the Bible, to derive a principle of Jewish law or provide a moral lesson. Mikveh (MIK-vuh) Literally, gathering.  A ritual bath used for spiritual purification.  It is used primarily in conversion rituals and after the period of sexual separation during a woman's menstrual periods, but many Chasidim immerse themselves in the mikveh regularly for general spiritual purification. Milchig (MIL-khig) Yiddish:  dairy.  Used to describe kosher foods that contain dairy products and therefore cannot be eaten with meat.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Minchah (MIN-khuh) 1) Afternoon prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy.  2) An offering of meal or grain.  See Food and Drink Offerings. Minhag (MIN-hahg) Literally, custom.  A custom that has become a binding religious practice.  The word is also used more loosely to describe any customary religious practice. Minyan (MIN-yahn; MIN-yin) The quorum necessary to recite certain prayers, consisting of ten adult Jewish men.  See Group Prayer. Mishloach Manot (mish-LOahkh mah-NOHT) Literally, sending out portions.  The sending gifts of food to friends during Purim. Mishnah (MISH-nuh) An early written compilation of Jewish oral tradition, the basis of the Talmud. Mishneh Torah (MISH-ne TOH-ruh; MISH-nay TOH-ruh) The code of Jewish law written by Maimonides.  One of the most respected compilations of Jewish law ever written, and the only one to cover the full scope of Jewish law. Mitnagdim (mit-NAG-deem) Literally, opponents.  Orthodox Jews who are not Chasidic.  See Movements of Judaism. Mitzvah (MITS-vuh); pl:  Mitzvot (mits-VOHT) Literally, commandment.  Any of the 613 commandments that Jews are obligated to observe.  It can also refer to any Jewish religious obligation, or more generally to any good deed.  See Halakhah:  Jewish Law - The 613 Mitzvot; A List of the 613 Mitzvot. Mohel (Maw-y'l; rhymes with oil) Literally, circumciser.  One who performs the ritual circumcision of an 8-day-old male Jewish child or of a convert to Judaism.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Mordecai (MOR-duh-khahy) One of the heroes of the story of Purim. Mashiach (mah-SHEE-ahkh or moh-SHEE-ahkh) Literally, anointed.  A descendant of King David who will be chosen by God to put an end to all evil in the world, rebuild the Temple, bring the exiles back to Israel, and reestablish an independent Torah state in the Land of Israel.  Generally translated as "messiah", but the Jewish concept is very different from the Christian one. Motzi Sheim Ra (MOH-tsee SHAYM RAH) A person who "spreads a bad report"; that is, who tells disparaging lies.  It is the worst of the sins involving speech.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Mourning See Life, Death, and Mourning - Mourning. Movement Roughly equivalent to "denomination", although the distinctions between Jewish movements are not as great as those between Christian denominations. Musaf (MOO-sahf; MU-sahf) An additional prayer service for Sabbaths and holidays.  See Jewish Liturgy. Mysticism See Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism. - N - Name of God See The Name of God. Names Jewish children are ordinarily given a formal Hebrew name to be used for religious purposes.  See Naming a Child. Navi (nah-VEE); pl.  N'vi-im (n'-vee-EEM) From "niv sefatayim" meaning fruit of the lips.  A prophet.  A spokesman for God, chosen to convey a message or teaching.  Prophets were role models of holiness, scholarship, and closeness to God.  Also:  A section of the Tanakh containing the writings of the prophets. Ne'ilah (n'-EE-luh) Literally, closing.  The closing service of Yom Kippur. Ner Tamid (NAYR tah-MEED) Literally, continual lamp.  Usually translated "eternal flame".  A candelabrum or lamp near the ark in the synagogue that symbolizes the menorah in the Temple. Nesekh An offering of undiluted wine. New Year See Rosh Hashanah. Niddah (nee-DAH) The separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also refers to a woman so separated.  Also referred to as taharat ha-mishpachah or family purity. Nihum Avelim Literally, comforting mourners.  One of the Jewish practices relating to death and mourning. Nisan The first month of the Biblical Jewish year and the seventh month of the regular Jewish year, occurring in March/April.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Nisuin Literally, elevation.  The second part of the two-part Jewish marriage process, after which the bride and groom begin to live together as husband and wife. Noahic Commandments Seven commandments given to Noah after the flood, which are binding on both non-Jews to observe and Jews to administer. Numbers In Hebrew, all letters have a numerical value, and numbers are written using letters.  See Numerical Values of Words. - O - Offerings See Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Olah (oh-LAH) Derived from a root meaning ascention.  A burnt offering, a type of sacrifice that represents complete submission to God's will.  It is completely consumed by fire on the altar. Old Testament An offensive Christian term for the Hebrew Bible.  See Torah. Omer (OH-mayr) A unit of measure.  The period between Passover and Shavu'ot is known as the Omer period, because we count the days from the time that the first omer of barley is to be brought to the Temple.  See The Counting of the Omer. Onah The wife's right to have regular sexual relations with her husband, a right that is fundamental to every Jewish marriage and that cannot be diminished by the husband.  See Kosher Sex; Marriage. Oral Torah (TOH-ruh) Jewish teachings explaining and elaborating on the Written Torah, handed down orally until the 2d century C.E. Order A division of the Mishnah and Talmud. Original Sin Judaism completely rejects the doctrine of original sin.  See Birth; The Dual Nature. Orthodox One of the major movements of Judaism, believing that Jewish law comes from God and cannot be changed. - P - Parah Adumah (Pahr-AH ah-doo-MAH) Literally, red heifer.  An animal used as an offering in an unusual and mysterious ritual to purify from the defilement of contact with the dead. Pareve (PAHR-ev) Yiddish:  neutral.  Used to describe kosher foods that contain neither meat nor dairy and therefore can be eaten with either.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Parshah (PAHR-shah) or parashah A weekly Torah portion read in synagogue. Passover Holiday commemorating the Exodus from Egypt.  The holiday also marks the beginning of the harvest season. Peace Offering A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Pentecost See Shavu'ot. Perutah (pe-ROO-tuh) A small copper coin, sufficient to acquire a wife by money. Pharisees (PHAR-i-sees) A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It is the forerunner of rabbinic Judaism, which encompasses all of the movements of Judaism in existence today. Phylacteries See Tefillin. Pidyon Ha-Ben (peed-YOHN hah-BEHN) Literally, redemption of the son.  A ritual redeeming the firstborn son of any Jewish mother by payment to a kohein. Pirkei Avot (PEER-kay ah-VOHT) Literally, Ethics of the Fathers.  A tractate of the Mishnah devoted to ethical advice from many of the greatest rabbis of the early Talmudic period. Priest A descendant of Aaron, charged with performing various rites in the Temple.  This is not the same thing as a rabbi.  See Kohein. Prophet A spokesman for God, chosen to convey a message or teaching.  Prophets were role models of holiness, scholarship, and closeness to God. Prophets A section of Jewish scripture containing the writings of the Prophets.  See Torah - Written Torah. Purim (PAWR-im) Literally, lots (as in "lottery").  A holiday celebrating the rescue of the Jews from extermination at the hands of the chief minister to the King of Persia. Prayer See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Pushke (PUSH-kuh) A box in the home or the synagogue used to collect money for donation to charity. - Q - Qorban (Kawr-BAHN); pl.  Qorbanot (kawr-BAHN-oht) From a root meaning to draw near.  A sacrifice or offering. - R - Rabbi (RA-bahy) A religious teacher and person authorized to make decisions on issues of Jewish law. Rabbinical Judaism (ruh-BIN-i-kul) A general term encompassing all movements of Judaism descended from Pharisaic Judaism; that is, all movements in existence today. Rakheel (Rah-KHEEL) A tale-bearer.  Derived from a word meaning trader or merchant.  Tale-bearing is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Rashi (RAH-shee) Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, one of the greatest medieval Jewish scholars. Rebbetzin (REB-i-tsin) The wife of a rabbi.  See The Role of Women. Rebbi (REB-bee) Usu.  translated Grand Rabbi.  The leader of a Chasidic community, often believed to have special, mystical power.  Also called a tzaddik. Recipes See Jewish Cooking. Reconstructionism One of the major movements of Judaism, an outgrowth of Conservative that does not believe in a personified deity and believes that Jewish law was created by men. Red Heifer (Red Cow) An animal used as an offering in an unusual and mysterious ritual to purify from the defilement of contact with the dead. Red Magen David (mah-GAYN dah-VEED; MAH-gen DAH-vid; MOH-gen DAY-vid) This Israeli equivalent of the Red Cross.  "Magen David" is the Hebrew name of the six-pointed Jewish star. Reform One of the major movements of Judaism, believing that Jewish law was inspired by God and one can choose which laws to follow. Rosh Chodesh (ROHSH CHOH-desh) Literally, first of the month.  The first day of a month, on which the first sliver of the new moon appears.  See Jewish Calendar. Rosh Hashanah (ROHSH hah SHAH-nuh; RUSH-uh SHAH-nuh) Literally, first of the year.  The new year for the purpose of counting years. - S - Sabbath See Shabbat. Sacrifice See Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Sadducees (SAD-yoo-sees) A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Sages Refers generally to the greatest Jewish minds of all times.  See Sages and Scholars. Sandak (SAN-dak) The person given the honor of holding the baby during a ritual circumcision.  Sometimes referred to as a godfather. Scriptures See Torah. Second Day of Holidays An extra day is added to many holidays because in ancient times, there was doubt as to which day was the correct day. Seder (SAY-d'r) Literally, order.  1) The family home ritual conducted as part of the Passover observance.  2) A division of the Mishnah and Talmud. Sefer K'ritut (SAY-fayr KREE-toot) Literally, scroll of cutting off.  A writ of divorce.  Also called a get. Sefirot (se-fee-ROHT) Literally, emanations.  In Jewish mysticism, the emanations from God's essence that interact with the universe. Sekhakh (s'-KHAHKH) Literally, covering.  Material used for the roof of a sukkah during the holiday of Sukkot. Semikhah (s'-MIKH-uh) Essentially, a rabbinical degree, authorizing a person to answer questions and resolve disputes regarding Jewish law. Sephardic Jews (s'-FAHR-dic) Jews from Spain, Portugal, North Africa, and the Middle East, and their descendants. Services See Jewish Liturgy, Yom Kippur Liturgy, Synagogues, Shuls, and Temples. Se'udat Havra'ah Literally, the meal of condolence.  The first meal that a family eats after the burial of a relative, prepared by a neighbor.  See Mourning. Sex See Kosher Sex; Marriage. Shabbat (shah-BAT; SHAH-bis) Literally, end, cease, rest.  The Jewish Sabbath, a day of rest and spiritual enrichment. Shacharit (SHAHKH-reet) Morning prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy. Shammai (SHAH-mahy) One of the great rabbis of the Talmud.  His stricter views of Jewish law are often contrasted with those of Hillel. Shammus (SHAH-mis) Literally, servant.  1) The candle that is used to light other Chanukkah candles; 2) the janitor or caretaker of a synagogue. Shavu'ot (shuh-VOO-oht; shah-VOO-uhs) Literally, weeks.  A festival commemorating the giving of the Torah and the harvest of the first fruits. Shechinah (sh'-KHEE-nuh) The Divine Presence of God, generally represented as a feminine quality.  See The Nature of God; Prophets and Prophecy. Shechitah (sh'-KHEE-tuh) Literally, slaughtering or killing.  Kosher slaughter. Shema (sh'-MAH) One of the basic Jewish prayers.  See Jewish Liturgy; Signs and Symbols. Shemini Atzeret (sh'MEE-nee aht-ZE-ret) Literally, the eighth (day) of assembly.  The day (or two days) after Sukkot. Shemoneh Esrei (sh'MOH-nuh ES-ray) Literally, eighteen.  A prayer that is the center of any Jewish religious service.  Also known as the Amidah or the Tefillah.  See Jewish Liturgy. Sheva Brakhos (SHE-vuh BRUH-khohs) Literally, seven blessings.  The seven blessings recited during the nisuin portion of the Jewish wedding ceremony. Shevarim (she-vahr-EEM) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Shevat The eleventh month of the Jewish year, occurring in January/February.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Shield of David The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Shiksa A derogatory term for a non-Jewish female.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Shiva (SHI-vuh) Literally, seven.  The seven-day period of mourning after the burial of a close relative. Shkutz A derogatory term for a non-Jewish male.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Sh'lamim (shlah-MEEM) Literally, peace [offering].  A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Shloshim (shlohsh-EEM) Literally, thirty.  The thirty-day period of mourning after the burial of a close relative. Shochet (SHOH-khet) Kosher slaughterer. Shofar (sho-FAHR) A ram's horn, blown like a trumpet as a call to repentance.  See Rosh Hashanah. Shomerim (shohm-REEM) Literally, guards, keepers.  People who sit with a body between the time of death and burial.  See Care for the Dead. Shul (SHOOL) The Yiddish term for a Jewish house of worship.  The term is used primarily by Orthodox Jews. Siddur (SID-r; sid-AWR) Literally, order.  Prayer book.  See Jewish Liturgy. Sidrah (SID-ruh) Literally, order.  A weekly Torah portion read in synagogue. Simchat Torah (SIM-khat TOH-ruh) Literally, rejoicing in the law.  A holiday celebrating the end and beginning of the cycle of weekly Torah readings. Sin Offering A type of sacrifice used to atone for and expiate unintentional sins. Sivan The third month of the Jewish year, occurring in May/June.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Slander Slander is a serious sin in Judaism, even if the disparaging comment is true.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Speech For information about the power of speech and sins committed through speech, see Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra.  For information about pronouncing the Name of God, see The Name of God. Star of David The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Sukkah (SUK-uh) Literally, booth.  The temporary dwellings we live in during the holiday of Sukkot. Sukkot (soo-KOHT; SUK-uhs) Literally, booths.  A festival commemorating the wandering in the desert and the final harvest. Symbols See Signs and Symbols. Synagogue (SIN-uh-gahg) From a Greek root meaning assembly.  The most widely accepted term for a Jewish house of worship. - T - Taharat Ha-Mishpachah (tah-HAH-raht hah-meesh-PAH-khah) Literally, family purity.  Laws relating to the separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also referred to as the laws of niddah. Takkanah (t'-KAH-nuh) A law instituted by the rabbis and not derived from any biblical commandment. Tale-Bearing Tale-bearing is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Tallit (TAH-lit; TAH-lis) A shawl-like garment worn during morning services, with tzitzit (long fringes) attached to the corners as a reminder of the commandments. Tallit Katan (TAH-lit kuh-TAHN) Literally, small tallit.  A four-cornered, poncho-like garment worn under a shirt so that we may have the opportunity to fulfill the commandment to put tzitzit (fringes) on the corners of our garments. Talmud (TAHL-mud) The most significant collection of the Jewish oral tradition interpreting the Torah. Tammuz The fourth month of the Jewish year, occurring in June/July.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Tanakh (tuhn-AHKH) Acronym of Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings).  Written Torah; what non-Jews call the Old Testament. Tashlikh (TAHSH-likh) Literally, casting off.  A custom of going to a river and symbolically casting off one's sins.  See Rosh Hashanah. Tefillah (t'-FEE-luh) Prayer.  Sometimes refers specifically to the Shemoneh Esrei prayer.  See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Tefillin (t'-FIL-lin) Phylacteries.  Leather pouches containing scrolls with passages of scripture, used to fulfill the commandment to bind the commandments to our hands and between our eyes. Tekiah (t'-KEE-uh) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Temple The central place of worship in ancient Jerusalem, where sacrifices were offered, destroyed in 70 C.E.  Reform Jews commonly use the term "temple" to refer to their houses of worship. Teruah (t'-ROO-uh) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Teshuvah (t'-SHOO-vuh) Literally, return.  repentance. Tevet The tenth month of the Jewish year, occurring in December/January.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Tisha B'Av (TISH-uh BAHV) Literally, The Ninth of Av.  A fast day commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, as well as other tragedies. Tishri The seventh month of the Biblical Jewish year and the first month of the regular Jewish year, during which many important holidays occur.  See also Months of the Jewish Year. Torah (TOH-ruh) In its narrowest sense, Torah is Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  In its broadest sense, Torah is the entire body of Jewish teachings. Torah Readings Each week, a different portion of the Torah and the Prophets are read in synagogue. Torah Scroll The Torah (Bible) that is read in synagogue is written on a leather scroll. Tractate A subdivision of the Mishnah and Talmud. Transliteration The process of writing Hebrew using the Roman (English) alphabet.  More an art than a science. Treyf (TRAYF) Literally, torn.  A term loosely used to refer to food that is not kosher. Tu B'Shevat (TOO bish-VAHT) Literally, 15th of Shevat.  The new year for the purpose of counting the age of trees for purposes of tithing. Tzaddik (TSAH-deek) Literally, righteous person.  The leader of a Chasidic community, often believed to have special, mystical power.  Also called a rebbi. Tzedakah (tsi-DUH-kuh) Literally, righteousness.  Generally refers to charity. Tzimmes (TSIM-is) Yiddish.  A sweet stew.  The word can also refer to making a big fuss over something. Tzitzit (TZIT-sit) Fringes attached to the corners of garments as a reminder of the commandments. - U - Ufruf (UF-ruf) The groom's aliyah on the Shabbat before his wedding. Unpointed Text Hebrew text written without vowel points.  Hebrew should be written without vowels; however, many texts add vowel points to aid pronunciation and comprehension.  See Hebrew Alphabet. - W - Wedding See Marriage; A Typical Wedding Ceremony. Women See The Role of Women; Marriage. Work Activities involving creation or exercise of control over the environment, which are prohibited on Shabbat and certain holidays. Writings A section of Jewish scripture containing various writings.  See Torah - Written Torah. Written Torah (TOH-ruh) The scripture that non-Jews call the Old Testament. - Y - Yad (YAHD) Literally, hand.  Hand-shaped pointer used while reading from Torah scrolls. Yahrzeit (YAHR-tsahyt) Yiddish:  literally, anniversary.  The anniversary of the death of a close relative.  See Mourning. Yarmulke (YAH-mi-kuh) From Tartar "skullcap", or from Aramaic "Yirei Malka" (fear of the King).  The skullcap worn by Jews during services, and by some Jews at all times. Year See Jewish Calendar. Yemenite Jews The Jews of the Middle Eastern country of Yemen, whose customs and practices are somewhat different from those of Ashkenazic or Sephardic Jews.  See Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews. Yetzer Ra (YAY-tser RAH) Literally, evil impulse.  The selfish desire for satisfaction of personal needs, which can lead a person to do evil if not restrained by the yetzer tov.  See Human Nature; Kosher Sex. Yetzer Tov (YAY-tser TOHV) Literally, good impulse.  The moral conscience, which motivates us to follow God's law.  See Human Nature. Yiddish (YID-ish) The "international language" of Ashkenazic Jews, based primarily on German with words taken from Hebrew and many Slavic languages, and written in the Hebrew Alphabet. Yizkor (YIZ-kawr) Literally, may He remember.  Prayers said on certain holidays in honor of deceased close relatives.  See Mourning. Yom Ha-Atzmz'ut (YOHM hah ahts-mah-OOT) Israeli Independence Day. Yom Ha-Shoah (YOHM hah shoh-AH) Holocaust Remembrance Day. Yom Ha-Zikkaron (YOHM hah zee-kah-ROHN) Israeli Memorial Day. Yom Kippur (YOHM ki-PAWR) Literally, Day of Atonement.  A day set aside for fasting, depriving oneself of pleasures, and repenting from the sins of the previous year. Yom Yerushalayim (YOHM y'-roo-shah-LAH-yeem) Holiday celebrating the reunification of Jerusalem in the hands of the modern state of Israel. - Z - Zealots A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Zebach Sh'lamim (zeh-BAKH shlah-MEEM) Literally, peace offering.  A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Zohar (ZOH-hahr) The primary written work in the mystical tradition of Kabbalah. Prev | Table of Contents Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Torah 101 Table of Contents

Ideas | People | Places | Things | Words | Deeds | Times | Life Events | Reference | Links Torah 101 Table of Contents Back to Home Page Introduction to Torah 101 Download a zipped copy of Torah 101 for study offline. Current Calendar The current Hebrew calendar showing all holidays and scriptural readings. Support Our Site   Search in both English and Hebrew              Search     powered by FreeFind   Ideas What Do Jews Believe? Basic The Nature of God Intermediate Human Nature Advanced Mashiach:  The Messiah Intermediate Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism Advanced People Who Is a Jew? Basic Movements of Judaism Basic Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews Basic Gentiles Basic The Role of Women Intermediate Rabbis, Priests, and Other Functionaries Basic Sages and Scholars Intermediate Prophets and Prophecy Intermediate Places Synagogues, Shuls, and Temples Basic Things Signs and Symbols Basic Jewish Cooking Basic Words Hebrew Alphabet Basic Hebrew Language:  Root Words Intermediate The Name of God Basic Torah Basic Weekly Torah Readings Intermediate Prayers and Blessings Intermediate Jewish Liturgy Intermediate Deeds Halakhah:  Jewish Law Intermediate Love and Brotherhood Basic Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra Intermediate Kashrut:  Jewish Dietary Laws Intermediate Kosher Sex Advanced Tzedakah:  Charity Intermediate Treatment of Animals Intermediate Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings Advanced A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments) Advanced Times Jewish Calendar Basic Shabbat Basic Jewish Holidays Basic Introduction Basic The Month of Tishri Basic Rosh Hashanah Basic Days of Awe Basic Yom Kippur Basic Sukkot Basic Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah Basic Chanukkah Basic Tu B'Shevat Basic Purim Basic Pesach (Passover) Basic The Counting of the Omer Basic Shavu'ot Basic Tisha B'Av Basic Minor Fasts Basic 20th Century Holidays Basic Life Events Birth and the First Month of Life Basic Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah, and Confirmation Basic Marriage Basic Divorce Basic Life, Death, and Mourning Basic Reference Bibliography Basic Common Prayers and Blessings Intermediate Glossary of Jewish Terminology Basic Other Torah Links: AishDas Torah Links (hundreds of selected Torah links, well organized by categories and with search engine) Our MTR freeware program for the PC (Mechon Mamre's Jewish Legal Classics program for those who read Hebrew, including the Bible, Mishneh Torah, Talmud, and more); also our version of Mishneh Torah and the Bible in Hebrew for the Palm Pilot. Snunit's Kodesh Site (an all Hebrew site for searching and reading in the Bible and Jewish Law texts with very useful linking between the Bible and Jewish Law texts, based with our permission on the texts as they were on this site in late 2003) Judaic Seminar (understanding the Bible from a humanistic scholarly observant Jewish perspective, Orthodox Sephardic views on practical problems in Jewish Law, and more) The About.com Guide to Judaism (formerly the Mining Company's Guide to Judaism--a great resource for Jewish information with extensive links, nicely organized according to subject matter) Soc.Culture.Jewish FAQ (a large detailed FAQ with information from several movements' perspectives) Shamash Home Page (a variety of Jewish mailing lists, archives, Bible commentary and Hebrew and English Bible texts for computer, and more) Jews for Judaism (the counter-missionary organization, whose FAQ is highly recommended reading for Jews and Gentiles alike) Ideas | People | Places | Things | Words | Deeds | Times | Life Events | Reference | Links Got a question or comment?  "Torah 101" is © 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 by Mechon Mamre, 12 Hayyim Vital St., Jerusalem, Israel.  972-2-652-1906 last updated:  24 January 2012