Glossary of Jewish Terminology

Prev | Table of Contents # A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Glossary of Jewish Terminology Following is a partial list of Hebrew, Yiddish, and other Jewish terms used on this web site.  Unless otherwise specified, the terms are Hebrew. We have attempted to provide pronunciations for most of these terms.  Some of the pronunciations may not be strictly, technically correct, but they are the way we usually hear the terms pronounced.  Unfortunately, what is usually heard among English speakers is a mix of Ashkenazic and Sefardic pronunciations.  We have tried to present the Sefardic pronunciation as much as possible, but some things are never heard pronounced that way! Guide to pronunciation: ' - a vowel that is not quite pronounced; a very short e a - as in at ah - as in father ahy - as in my aw -as in awe (often used as awr to sound like or) ay - as in way e - as in bet ee - as in me i - as in it oh - as in hope oo - as in food uh - as in up u - as in put kh - as in Scottish or German, a throat clearing noise tsch - as in chair ts - as in paints - # - 13 Principles of Faith The most widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs, compiled by Maimonides. 613 Commandments Judaism teaches that God gave the Jews 613 commandments, which are binding on Jews but not on non-Jews.  See Halakhah:  Jewish Law; A List of the 613 Mitzvot. - A - Abortion See Kosher Sex - Abortion. Adar The twelfth month of the Jewish year, occurring in February/March.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Adoption There is no formal procedure for adoption in Judaism, but one who raises another person's child is acknowledged as the parent in many important ways. Adoshem A substitute for a name of God.  See The Name of God. Agunah Literally, anchored.  A woman whose husband disappeared without divorcing her. Akiba (uh-KEE-buh) One of the greatest rabbis recorded in the Talmud. Al Cheit (AHL CHAYT) Literally, for the sin.  A confession of community sins recited repeatedly on Yom Kippur.  See Yom Kippur Liturgy. Alef-Bet (AH-lef-bet) The Hebrew alphabet.  The name is derived from the first two letters of the Hebrew Alphabet. Aliyah (uh-LEE-uh; ah-lee-AH) Literally, ascension.  1) Reading from the Torah; (or reciting a blessing over the reading) during services, which is considered an honor (generally referred to in English as having or getting an aliyah and pronounced uh-LEE-uh).  See also Bar Mitzvah.  2) Emigrating to Israel (generally referred to in English as making aliyah and pronounced ah-lee-AH). Amidah (uh-MEE-duh) Literally, standing.  A prayer that is the center of any Jewish religious service.  Also known as the Shemoneh Esrei or the Tefillah.  See Jewish Liturgy. Animals See Treatment of Animals; Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Aninut The period of mourning between the time of death and the time of burial. Arbah Minim Literally, four species.  Fruit and branches used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Ark An acronym of aron kodesh, lit., holy chest.  The cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept.  The word has no connection with Noah's Ark, which is "teyvat" in Hebrew. Aron Kodesh (AH-rohn KOH-desh) Literally, holy chest.  The cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept. Asham (ah-SHAHM) A guilt offering.  A type of sacrifice used to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust. Ashkenazic Jews (ahsh-ken-AH-zik) Jews from eastern France, Germany, and Eastern Europe, and their descendants. Av The fifth month of the Jewish year, occurring in July/August.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Avelut The period of mourning after the burial of a parent, child, sibling, or spouse. - B - Baal Shem Tov (bahl shem tohv) Literally, Master of the Good Name.  Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer.  The founder of Chasidic Judaism. Bagel (BAY-g'l) Donut-shaped bread that is boiled before it is baked. Bar Kokhba (BAHR KOHKH-buh) Aramaic:  Son of a Star.  Simeon ben Kosiba, the leader of the last and most successful Jewish rebellion against Rome in 132-135 C.E.  He died in battle when the rebellion was defeated.  Rabbi Akiba believed he was the Mashiach (Messiah). Bar Mitzvah (BAHR MITS-vuh) Literally, son of the commandment.  A boy who has reached the age of 13 and is consequently obligated to observe the commandments.  Also, a ceremony marking the fact that a boy has reached this age. Bat Mitzvah (BAHT MITS-vuh) Literally, daughter of the commandment.  A girl who has reached the age of 12 and is consequently obligated to observe the commandments.  Also, a ceremony marking the fact that a girl has reached this age. B.C.E. Before the Common (or Christian) Era.  An alternative way of saying B.C. (before Christ), since we know that Jesus was not the Christ (messiah). Beginning of Day A day on the Jewish calendar begins at sunset.  When a date is given for a Jewish holiday, the holiday actually begins at sunset on the preceding day.  See When Holidays Begin. Beit Din (BAYT DIN) Literally, house of judgment.  A rabbinical court made up of three observant Jews who resolve business disputes under Jewish law and determine whether a prospective convert is ready for conversion. Beit Hillel (BAYT HIL-el; BAYT hil-EL) Literally, House of Hillel.  A school of thought during the Talmudic period, generally contrasted with the stricter views of Beit Shammai. Beit Knesset (BAYT K'NESS-et) Literally, house of assembly.  A Hebrew term for a synagogue. Beit Midrash (BAYT MID-rahsh) Literally, house of study.  A place set aside for study of sacred texts such as the Torah and the Talmud, generally a part of the synagogue or attached to it. Beit Shammai (BAYT SHAH-mahy) Literally, House of Shammai.  A school of thought during the Talmudic period, generally contrasted with the more lenient views of Beit Hillel. Beliefs See What Do Jews Believe?; The Nature of God; Human Nature; Kabbalah. Bentsch (BENTSCH) Yiddish:  bless.  To recite a blessing.  Usually refers to the recitation of the birkat ha-mazon (grace after meals).  See Prayers and Blessings. Berakhah (B'RUHKH-khah; b'ruhkh-KHAH); pl:  Berakhot (b'ruhkh-KHOHT) A blessing.  A prayer beginning with the phrase "barukh atah . . ." (blessed art Thou . . .). Bible See Torah. Bimah (BEE-muh) The pedestal on which the Torah scrolls are placed when they are being read in the synagogue; i.e., the pulpit. Binah (bee-NAH) Intuition, understanding, intelligence.  A quality that women supposedly have in greater degree than men.  Also, in kabbalistic thought, one of the Ten Sefirot. Birkat Ha-Mazon (BEER-kaht hah mah-ZOHN) Literally, blessing of the food.  Grace after meals.  The recitation of birkat ha-mazon is commonly referred to as bentsching. Birth See Birth and the First Month of Life. Birth Control See Kosher Sex - Birth Control. Blessing See Prayers and Blessings. Blintz (BLINTS) Yiddish.  A thin, crepe-like pancake rolled around a filling of potato and onion, cheese, or fruit. Books See Bibliography; Torah. Brit Milah (BRIT MEE-lah) Literally, covenant of circumcision.  The ritual circumcision of a male Jewish child on the 8th day of his life or of a male convert to Judaism.  Frequently referred to as a brit or bris. Burial See Care for the Dead. Burnt Offering A type of sacrifice that represents complete submission to God's will.  It is completely consumed by fire on the altar.  In Hebrew, it is called an olah. - C - Calendar See Jewish Calendar. C.E. Common (or Christian) Era.  Used instead of A.D., because A.D.  means the Year of the Lord, and we know that Jesus is not the LORD. Chai (KHAHY, rhymes with Hi!) Literally, living or life.  The word is often used as a design on jewelry and other ornaments.  Donations to charity are often made in multiples of 18, the numerical value of the word. Challah (KHAH-luh) A sweet, eggy, yellow bread, usually braided, which is served on Sabbaths and holidays. Chametz (KHUH-mitz) Literally, leaven.  Leavened grain products, which may not be owned or consumed during Passover. Chanukkah (KHAH-nik-uh; KHAH-noo-kah) Literally, dedication.  An eight day holiday celebrating the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem after it was defiled by the Selucid Greeks. Chanukkat Ha-Bayit (KHAH-noo-KAHT hah BAHY-eet) Literally, dedication of the house.  A brief ceremony dedicating a Jewish household, during which the mezuzah is affixed to the doorposts. Charity See Tzedakah. Charoset (khah-ROH-set) A mixture of fruit, wine, and nuts eaten at the Passover seder to symbolize mortar used by the Jewish slaves in Egypt. Chasidism (KHAH-sid-ism); Chasidic (khah-SID-ic) From the word "Chasid" meaning pious.  A branch of Orthodox Judaism that maintains a lifestyle separate from the non-Jewish world.  See Movements of Judaism. Chatat (khah-TAHT) A sin offering.  A type of sacrifice used to atone for and expiate unintentional sins. Chazzan (KHAH-zen) Cantor.  The person who leads the congregation in prayer.  May be a professional or a member of the congregation. Chelev (KHE-lev) The fat surrounding organs, as distinguished from the fat surrounding muscles.  Forbidden to be eaten under the dietary laws. Chevra Kaddisha (KHEV-ruh kah-DEESH-uh) Literally, holy society.  An organization devoted to caring for the dead. Chillul Ha-Shem (khil-LOOL hah SHEM) Literally, profanation of the Name.  Causing God or Judaism to come into disrespect, or causing a person to violate a commandment.  See The Name of God. Chol Ha-Mo'ed (KHOHL hah MOH-ed; KHOHL hah moh-AYD) The intermediate days of Passover and Sukkot, when work is permitted. Cholent (TSCHUH-lent) A slow cooked stew of beef, beans, and barley, which is served on Sabbaths. Chukkim (khook-EEM) Jewish religious laws for which no reason is given in the Torah.  Some believe that they are meant to show our obedience to God. Chumash (KHUH-mish) Literally, five.  A compilation of the first five books of the Bible and readings from the prophets, organized in the order of the weekly Torah portions. Chuppah (KHU-puh) Today, the wedding canopy, symbolic of the groom's home, under which the main part of the wedding ceremony is performed. Circumcision Removal of the foreskin, a commandment in Judaism performed on the 8th day of a male child's life or upon conversion to Judaism.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Clothing See Tzitzit and Tallit; Yarmulke. Commandments See Halakhah:  Jewish Law; A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments). Confirmation A ceremony performed in some Reform and Conservative synagogues to replace or supplement the Bar Mitzvah. Conservative One of the major movements of Judaism, accepting the binding nature of Jewish law but believing that the law can change. Contraception See Kosher Sex - Birth Control. Conversion See Who is a Jew?; Jewish Attitudes Towards Non-Jews; Conversion. Cooking See Jewish Cooking; Kashrut. Counting of the Omer The counting of the days between Passover and Shavu'ot. - D - Dati (DAH-tee) The Hebrew word for religious Jews, used in Israel. Daven (DAH-ven) Yiddish:  Pray.  See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Days of Awe Ten days from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, a time for introspection and considering the sins of the previous year. Divorce See Divorce; Marriage. Dreidel A top-like toy used to play a traditional Chanukkah game. - E - Ein Sof (ayn sohf) Literally, without end.  In Jewish mysticism, the true essence of God, which is so transcendent that it cannot be described and cannot interact directly with the universe. Elokeynu A substitute for a name of God.  See The Name of God. Essenes A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Esther One of the heroes of the story of Purim.  Also, the book in the Bible that tells her story. Ethiopian Jews The Jews of Ethiopia, whose customs and practices are somewhat different from those of Ashkenazic or Sephardic Jews.  See Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews. Etrog (ET-rohg) A citrus fruit native to Israel, used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Evil Impulse See Human Nature - The Dual Nature. - F - Family Purity Laws relating to the separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also referred to as the laws of niddah or taharat ha-mishpachah. Fast Days See Yom Kippur; Tisha B'Av; Minor Fasts. Firstborn See Pidyon Ha-Ben:  Redemption of the Firstborn. Fleishig (FLAHYSH-ig) Yiddish:  meat.  Used to describe foods that contain meat and therefore cannot be eaten with dairy.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Food See Jewish Cooking; Kashrut. Four Species Fruit and branches used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. Free Will See Human Nature - The Dual Nature. - G - G-d A way of avoiding writing a Name of God, to avoid the risk of the sin of erasing or defacing the Name.  See The Name of God, The Nature of God. Gefilte Fish (g'-FIL-tuh) Yiddish:  lit.stuffed fish.  A traditional Jewish dish consisting of a ball or cake of chopped up fish. Gemara (g'-MAHR-uh) Commentaries on the Mishnah.  The Mishnah and Gemara together are the Talmud. Gematria (g'-MAH-tree-uh) A field of Jewish mysticism finding hidden meanings in the numerical value of words. Gentiles See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Get (GET) A writ of divorce.  Also called a sefer k'ritut. Gezeirah (g'-ZAY-ruh) A law instituted by the rabbis to prevent people from unintentionally violating commandments. Gossip Gossiping is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Goy Literally, nation.  A non-Jew, that is, a member of one of the other nations.  There is nothing inherently insulting about the term; the word "goy" is used in the Torah to describe Israel.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Grace After Meals See Birkat Ha-Mazon. Grager (GREG-er; GRAG-er) A noisemaker used to blot out the name of Haman during the reading of the Megillah on Purim. Guide for the Perplexed Maimonides' masterpiece of Jewish philosophy and theology, written from the perspective of a Torah scholar conversant in Arab and Greek sciences and philosophy. Guilt Offering A type of sacrifice used to atone for sins of stealing things from the altar, for when you are not sure whether you have committed a sin or what sin you have committed, or for breach of trust. - H - Haftarah (hahf-TOH-ruh) Literally, conclusion.  A reading from the Prophets, read along with the weekly Torah portion. Haggadah (huh-GAH-duh) The book read during the Passover Seder, telling the story of the holiday. Halakhah (huh-LUHKH-khuh) Literally, the path that one walks.  Jewish law.  The complete body of rules and practices that Jews are bound to follow, including biblical commandments, commandments instituted by the rabbis, and binding customs.  See also Torah, A List of the 613 Mitzvot. Hallel Literally, praise God.  Psalms 113-118, in praise of God, which are recited on certain holidays.  See Jewish Liturgy. Haman (HAY-men) The villain of the story of Purim. Hamentaschen (HAH-men-TAH-shen) Literally, Haman's pockets.  Triangular, fruit-filled cookies traditionally served or given as gifts during Purim. Haredi The Hebrew word for Ultra-Orthodox Jews, used in Israel. Ha-Shem (hah SHEM) Literally, The Name.  The Name of God, which is not pronounced.  The phrase "ha-Shem" is often used as a substitute for God's Name. Hatafat Dam Brit (hah-tah-FAHT DAHM BRIT) A symbolic circumcision of a person who has already been circumcised or who was born without a foreskin.  It involves taking a pinprick of blood from the part of the penis where the foreskin would normally have been attached.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Havdalah (Hahv-DAH-luh) Literally, separation, division.  A ritual marking the end of the Sabbath or a holiday. Hebrew See Hebrew Alphabet; Hebrew Language:  Root Words. Hillel (HIL-el; hil-EL) One of the greatest rabbis recorded in the Talmud.  His views of Jewish law are often contrasted with the stricter views of Shammai.  Also:  a Jewish college student organization under the auspices of B'nai Brith. Hiloni The Hebrew word for secular Jews, used in Israel. Holidays See Jewish Holidays and pages following it. Holishkes (HOH-lish-kuhs) Cabbage leaves stuffed with meatballs served in a tomato-based sweet and sour sauce. Hoshanah Rabba (hoh-SHAH-nuh RAH-buh) Literally, great hosanna.  The seventh day of Sukkot, on which seven circuits are made around the synagogue reciting a prayer with the refrain, "Hosha na!" (please save us!). Human Nature See Human Nature. - I - Image of God See Human Nature - In the Image of God; The Nature of God. Interfaith Marriage Marriage to a non-Jew is not recognized as "marriage" in Jewish law.  The increasing frequency of intermarriage is a source of great concern to traditional Jews.  See also Marriage. Iyar The second month of the Jewish year, occurring in April/May.  See Months of the Jewish Year. - J - Jew A person whose mother was a Jew or who has converted to Judaism.  According to the Reform movement, a person whose father is a Jew is also a Jew.  See Who Is a Jew? Jewish Law See Halakhah. Jewish Star The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism, also known as the Magen David, the Shield of David, or the Star of David. Judah Ha-Nasi (JOO-duh hah NAH-see) Compiler of the Mishnah. - K - Kabbalah (kuh-BAH-luh) Literally, tradition.  Jewish mystical tradition. Kaddish (KAH-dish) Aramaic:  holy.  A prayer in Aramaic praising God, commonly associated with mourning practices.  See also Jewish Liturgy. Kapparot Literally, atonements.  A custom during the Days of Awe. Karet (KAH-reht) The penalty of spiritual excision, imposed by God.  Certain sins, such as failure to circumcise, are so severe that one who violates them has no place in the World to Come. Kashrut (KAHSH-rut; KAHSH-root; kahsh-ROOT) From a root meaning fit, proper, or correct.  In English, mostly refers to Jewish dietary laws. Kavanah (kuh-VAH-nuh; kah-vah-NAH) Concentration, intent.  The frame of mind required for prayer or performance of a mitzvah. Kavod Ha-Met (kuh-VOHD hah MAYT) Literally, respect for the dead.  One of the purposes of Jewish practices relating to death and mourning. Keriyah (KREE-yuh) Literally, tearing.  The tearing of one's clothes upon hearing of the death of a close relative.  See Mourning. Ketubah (KTOO-buh) Literally, writing.  The Jewish marriage contract. Kiddush (KID-ish) Literally, sanctification.  A prayer recited over wine sanctifying the Sabbath or a holiday. Kiddush Ha-Shem (ki-DOOSH hah SHEM) Literally, sanctification of The Name.  Any deed that increases the respect accorded to God or Judaism, especially martyrdom.  See The Name of God. Kiddushin Literally, sanctification.  The first part of the two-part process of Jewish marriage, which creates the legal relationship without the mutual obligations. Kippah (KEY-puh) The skullcap worn by Jews, more commonly known as a yarmulke in English. Kislev The ninth month of the Jewish year, occurring in November/December.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Kittel (KIT-'l, rhymes with little, but the t is pronounced distinctly) The white robes in which the dead are buried, worn by some during Yom Kippur services. Knaydelach (KNAY-duhl-ahkh) Yiddish:  dumplings.  Commonly refers to matzah balls.  Can also be used as a term of affection for small children.  See Jewish Cooking. Knish (KNISH) Yiddish.  A potato and flour dumpling stuffed with potato and onion, chopped liver, or cheese. Kohein; (KOH-hayn) pl:  Kohanim (koh-HAHN-eem) Priest.  A descendant of Aaron, charged with performing various rites in the Temple.  This is not the same thing as a rabbi. Kol Nidre (KOHL NID-ray) Literally, all vows.  The evening service of Yom Kippur, or the prayer that begins that service. Kosher (KOH-sher) Literally, fit, proper, or correct.  Describes food that is permissible to eat under Jewish dietary laws.  Can also describe any other ritual object that is fit for use according to Jewish law. Kugel (KOO-gul; KI-gul) Yiddish:  pudding.  A casserole of potatoes, eggs, and onion, or a dessert of noodles, fruits, and nuts in an egg based pudding. - L - Ladino (Luh-DEE-noh) The "international language" of Sefardic Jews, based primarily on Spanish, with words taken from Hebrew, Arabic, and other languages, and originally written in the Hebrew Alphabet; today, written in Latin letters like Spanish. Latkes (LAHT-kuhs; LAHT-kees) Potato pancakes traditionally eaten during Chanukkah. Lashon Ha-Ra (LAH-shohn HAH-rah; luh-SHOHN hah-RAH) Literally, the evil tongue.  Sins against other people committed by speech, such as defamation, gossip, swearing falsely, and scoffing. L'Chayim (l'-KHAHY-eem) Literally, to life.  A common Jewish toast. Leap Year A year with an extra month, to realign the Jewish lunar calendar with the solar year.  See Jewish Calendar. Levi (LAY-vee); Levite (LEE-vahyt) A descendant of the tribe of Levi, which was set aside to perform certain duties in connection with the Temple. Liberal One of the most liberal movements of Judaism in the United Kingdom, but somewhat more traditional than the US Reform Movement. Life See Life, Death, and Mourning. Liturgy See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. L-rd A way of avoiding writing a Name of God, to avoid the risk of the sin of erasing or defacing the Name.  See The Name of God. Love See Love and Brotherhood. Lox (LAHKS) Smoked salmon.  Commonly served on a bagel. L'Shanah Tovah (li-SHAH-nuh TOH-vuh; li-shah-NAH toh-VAH) Literally, for a good year.  A common greeting during Rosh Hashanah and Days of Awe. Lulav (LOO-lahv) Literally, palm branch.  A collection of palm, myrtle, and willow branches, used to fulfill the commandment to "rejoice before the LORD" during Sukkot. - M - Ma'ariv (MAH-reev) Evening prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy. Magen David (mah-GAYN dah-VEED; MAH-gen DAH-vid; MOH-gen DAY-vid) Literally, shield of David.  The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Maimonides (mahy-MAH-ni-dees) Rabbenu Moshe ben Maimon, one of the greatest medieval Jewish scholars. Mamzer (MAHM-zer) The child of a marriage that is prohibited and invalid under Jewish law, such as an incestuous union. Marriage See Marriage; Interfaith Marriages; Kosher Sex; Divorce. Masekhtot A subdivision of the Mishnah and Talmud. Matzah (MAHTZ-uh) Unleavened bread eaten during Passover. Matzah Ball Soup Thin chicken soup with dumplings made from matzah meal. Matzah Meal Crumbs of matzah, commonly used in Jewish Cooking in much the same way that other cultures use flour or bread crumbs. Meal Offerings An offering of meal or grain. Mechitzah (m'-KHEETZ-uh) The wall or curtain separating men from women during religious services. Megillah (m'-GILL-uh) Literally, scroll.  One of five books of the Bible (Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Esther).  The remaining books are referred to as sefers (books).  Usually refers to the book of Esther.  See Purim. Melachah (m'-LUH-khuh) Literally, work.  Work involving creation or exercise of control over the environment, which is prohibited on Shabbat and certain holidays. Menorah (m'-NAW-ruh; me-NOH-ruh) A candelabrum.  Usually refers to the nine-branched candelabrum used to hold the Chanukkah candles.  Can also refer to the seven-branched candelabrum used in the Temple. Masorti The Hebrew word for Jews who are traditionally observant but not Orthodox, used in Israel. Mezuzah (m'-ZOO-zuh; m'-ZU-zuh) Literally, doorpost.  A case attached to the doorposts of houses, containing a scroll with passages of scripture written on it. Midrash (MID-rash) From a root meaning to study, to seek out, or to investigate.  Stories elaborating on incidents in the Bible, to derive a principle of Jewish law or provide a moral lesson. Mikveh (MIK-vuh) Literally, gathering.  A ritual bath used for spiritual purification.  It is used primarily in conversion rituals and after the period of sexual separation during a woman's menstrual periods, but many Chasidim immerse themselves in the mikveh regularly for general spiritual purification. Milchig (MIL-khig) Yiddish:  dairy.  Used to describe kosher foods that contain dairy products and therefore cannot be eaten with meat.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Minchah (MIN-khuh) 1) Afternoon prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy.  2) An offering of meal or grain.  See Food and Drink Offerings. Minhag (MIN-hahg) Literally, custom.  A custom that has become a binding religious practice.  The word is also used more loosely to describe any customary religious practice. Minyan (MIN-yahn; MIN-yin) The quorum necessary to recite certain prayers, consisting of ten adult Jewish men.  See Group Prayer. Mishloach Manot (mish-LOahkh mah-NOHT) Literally, sending out portions.  The sending gifts of food to friends during Purim. Mishnah (MISH-nuh) An early written compilation of Jewish oral tradition, the basis of the Talmud. Mishneh Torah (MISH-ne TOH-ruh; MISH-nay TOH-ruh) The code of Jewish law written by Maimonides.  One of the most respected compilations of Jewish law ever written, and the only one to cover the full scope of Jewish law. Mitnagdim (mit-NAG-deem) Literally, opponents.  Orthodox Jews who are not Chasidic.  See Movements of Judaism. Mitzvah (MITS-vuh); pl:  Mitzvot (mits-VOHT) Literally, commandment.  Any of the 613 commandments that Jews are obligated to observe.  It can also refer to any Jewish religious obligation, or more generally to any good deed.  See Halakhah:  Jewish Law - The 613 Mitzvot; A List of the 613 Mitzvot. Mohel (Maw-y'l; rhymes with oil) Literally, circumciser.  One who performs the ritual circumcision of an 8-day-old male Jewish child or of a convert to Judaism.  See Brit Milah:  Circumcision. Mordecai (MOR-duh-khahy) One of the heroes of the story of Purim. Mashiach (mah-SHEE-ahkh or moh-SHEE-ahkh) Literally, anointed.  A descendant of King David who will be chosen by God to put an end to all evil in the world, rebuild the Temple, bring the exiles back to Israel, and reestablish an independent Torah state in the Land of Israel.  Generally translated as "messiah", but the Jewish concept is very different from the Christian one. Motzi Sheim Ra (MOH-tsee SHAYM RAH) A person who "spreads a bad report"; that is, who tells disparaging lies.  It is the worst of the sins involving speech.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Mourning See Life, Death, and Mourning - Mourning. Movement Roughly equivalent to "denomination", although the distinctions between Jewish movements are not as great as those between Christian denominations. Musaf (MOO-sahf; MU-sahf) An additional prayer service for Sabbaths and holidays.  See Jewish Liturgy. Mysticism See Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism. - N - Name of God See The Name of God. Names Jewish children are ordinarily given a formal Hebrew name to be used for religious purposes.  See Naming a Child. Navi (nah-VEE); pl.  N'vi-im (n'-vee-EEM) From "niv sefatayim" meaning fruit of the lips.  A prophet.  A spokesman for God, chosen to convey a message or teaching.  Prophets were role models of holiness, scholarship, and closeness to God.  Also:  A section of the Tanakh containing the writings of the prophets. Ne'ilah (n'-EE-luh) Literally, closing.  The closing service of Yom Kippur. Ner Tamid (NAYR tah-MEED) Literally, continual lamp.  Usually translated "eternal flame".  A candelabrum or lamp near the ark in the synagogue that symbolizes the menorah in the Temple. Nesekh An offering of undiluted wine. New Year See Rosh Hashanah. Niddah (nee-DAH) The separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also refers to a woman so separated.  Also referred to as taharat ha-mishpachah or family purity. Nihum Avelim Literally, comforting mourners.  One of the Jewish practices relating to death and mourning. Nisan The first month of the Biblical Jewish year and the seventh month of the regular Jewish year, occurring in March/April.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Nisuin Literally, elevation.  The second part of the two-part Jewish marriage process, after which the bride and groom begin to live together as husband and wife. Noahic Commandments Seven commandments given to Noah after the flood, which are binding on both non-Jews to observe and Jews to administer. Numbers In Hebrew, all letters have a numerical value, and numbers are written using letters.  See Numerical Values of Words. - O - Offerings See Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Olah (oh-LAH) Derived from a root meaning ascention.  A burnt offering, a type of sacrifice that represents complete submission to God's will.  It is completely consumed by fire on the altar. Old Testament An offensive Christian term for the Hebrew Bible.  See Torah. Omer (OH-mayr) A unit of measure.  The period between Passover and Shavu'ot is known as the Omer period, because we count the days from the time that the first omer of barley is to be brought to the Temple.  See The Counting of the Omer. Onah The wife's right to have regular sexual relations with her husband, a right that is fundamental to every Jewish marriage and that cannot be diminished by the husband.  See Kosher Sex; Marriage. Oral Torah (TOH-ruh) Jewish teachings explaining and elaborating on the Written Torah, handed down orally until the 2d century C.E. Order A division of the Mishnah and Talmud. Original Sin Judaism completely rejects the doctrine of original sin.  See Birth; The Dual Nature. Orthodox One of the major movements of Judaism, believing that Jewish law comes from God and cannot be changed. - P - Parah Adumah (Pahr-AH ah-doo-MAH) Literally, red heifer.  An animal used as an offering in an unusual and mysterious ritual to purify from the defilement of contact with the dead. Pareve (PAHR-ev) Yiddish:  neutral.  Used to describe kosher foods that contain neither meat nor dairy and therefore can be eaten with either.  See Kashrut - Separation of Meat and Dairy. Parshah (PAHR-shah) or parashah A weekly Torah portion read in synagogue. Passover Holiday commemorating the Exodus from Egypt.  The holiday also marks the beginning of the harvest season. Peace Offering A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Pentecost See Shavu'ot. Perutah (pe-ROO-tuh) A small copper coin, sufficient to acquire a wife by money. Pharisees (PHAR-i-sees) A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It is the forerunner of rabbinic Judaism, which encompasses all of the movements of Judaism in existence today. Phylacteries See Tefillin. Pidyon Ha-Ben (peed-YOHN hah-BEHN) Literally, redemption of the son.  A ritual redeeming the firstborn son of any Jewish mother by payment to a kohein. Pirkei Avot (PEER-kay ah-VOHT) Literally, Ethics of the Fathers.  A tractate of the Mishnah devoted to ethical advice from many of the greatest rabbis of the early Talmudic period. Priest A descendant of Aaron, charged with performing various rites in the Temple.  This is not the same thing as a rabbi.  See Kohein. Prophet A spokesman for God, chosen to convey a message or teaching.  Prophets were role models of holiness, scholarship, and closeness to God. Prophets A section of Jewish scripture containing the writings of the Prophets.  See Torah - Written Torah. Purim (PAWR-im) Literally, lots (as in "lottery").  A holiday celebrating the rescue of the Jews from extermination at the hands of the chief minister to the King of Persia. Prayer See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Pushke (PUSH-kuh) A box in the home or the synagogue used to collect money for donation to charity. - Q - Qorban (Kawr-BAHN); pl.  Qorbanot (kawr-BAHN-oht) From a root meaning to draw near.  A sacrifice or offering. - R - Rabbi (RA-bahy) A religious teacher and person authorized to make decisions on issues of Jewish law. Rabbinical Judaism (ruh-BIN-i-kul) A general term encompassing all movements of Judaism descended from Pharisaic Judaism; that is, all movements in existence today. Rakheel (Rah-KHEEL) A tale-bearer.  Derived from a word meaning trader or merchant.  Tale-bearing is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Rashi (RAH-shee) Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, one of the greatest medieval Jewish scholars. Rebbetzin (REB-i-tsin) The wife of a rabbi.  See The Role of Women. Rebbi (REB-bee) Usu.  translated Grand Rabbi.  The leader of a Chasidic community, often believed to have special, mystical power.  Also called a tzaddik. Recipes See Jewish Cooking. Reconstructionism One of the major movements of Judaism, an outgrowth of Conservative that does not believe in a personified deity and believes that Jewish law was created by men. Red Heifer (Red Cow) An animal used as an offering in an unusual and mysterious ritual to purify from the defilement of contact with the dead. Red Magen David (mah-GAYN dah-VEED; MAH-gen DAH-vid; MOH-gen DAY-vid) This Israeli equivalent of the Red Cross.  "Magen David" is the Hebrew name of the six-pointed Jewish star. Reform One of the major movements of Judaism, believing that Jewish law was inspired by God and one can choose which laws to follow. Rosh Chodesh (ROHSH CHOH-desh) Literally, first of the month.  The first day of a month, on which the first sliver of the new moon appears.  See Jewish Calendar. Rosh Hashanah (ROHSH hah SHAH-nuh; RUSH-uh SHAH-nuh) Literally, first of the year.  The new year for the purpose of counting years. - S - Sabbath See Shabbat. Sacrifice See Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings. Sadducees (SAD-yoo-sees) A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Sages Refers generally to the greatest Jewish minds of all times.  See Sages and Scholars. Sandak (SAN-dak) The person given the honor of holding the baby during a ritual circumcision.  Sometimes referred to as a godfather. Scriptures See Torah. Second Day of Holidays An extra day is added to many holidays because in ancient times, there was doubt as to which day was the correct day. Seder (SAY-d'r) Literally, order.  1) The family home ritual conducted as part of the Passover observance.  2) A division of the Mishnah and Talmud. Sefer K'ritut (SAY-fayr KREE-toot) Literally, scroll of cutting off.  A writ of divorce.  Also called a get. Sefirot (se-fee-ROHT) Literally, emanations.  In Jewish mysticism, the emanations from God's essence that interact with the universe. Sekhakh (s'-KHAHKH) Literally, covering.  Material used for the roof of a sukkah during the holiday of Sukkot. Semikhah (s'-MIKH-uh) Essentially, a rabbinical degree, authorizing a person to answer questions and resolve disputes regarding Jewish law. Sephardic Jews (s'-FAHR-dic) Jews from Spain, Portugal, North Africa, and the Middle East, and their descendants. Services See Jewish Liturgy, Yom Kippur Liturgy, Synagogues, Shuls, and Temples. Se'udat Havra'ah Literally, the meal of condolence.  The first meal that a family eats after the burial of a relative, prepared by a neighbor.  See Mourning. Sex See Kosher Sex; Marriage. Shabbat (shah-BAT; SHAH-bis) Literally, end, cease, rest.  The Jewish Sabbath, a day of rest and spiritual enrichment. Shacharit (SHAHKH-reet) Morning prayer services.  See Jewish Liturgy. Shammai (SHAH-mahy) One of the great rabbis of the Talmud.  His stricter views of Jewish law are often contrasted with those of Hillel. Shammus (SHAH-mis) Literally, servant.  1) The candle that is used to light other Chanukkah candles; 2) the janitor or caretaker of a synagogue. Shavu'ot (shuh-VOO-oht; shah-VOO-uhs) Literally, weeks.  A festival commemorating the giving of the Torah and the harvest of the first fruits. Shechinah (sh'-KHEE-nuh) The Divine Presence of God, generally represented as a feminine quality.  See The Nature of God; Prophets and Prophecy. Shechitah (sh'-KHEE-tuh) Literally, slaughtering or killing.  Kosher slaughter. Shema (sh'-MAH) One of the basic Jewish prayers.  See Jewish Liturgy; Signs and Symbols. Shemini Atzeret (sh'MEE-nee aht-ZE-ret) Literally, the eighth (day) of assembly.  The day (or two days) after Sukkot. Shemoneh Esrei (sh'MOH-nuh ES-ray) Literally, eighteen.  A prayer that is the center of any Jewish religious service.  Also known as the Amidah or the Tefillah.  See Jewish Liturgy. Sheva Brakhos (SHE-vuh BRUH-khohs) Literally, seven blessings.  The seven blessings recited during the nisuin portion of the Jewish wedding ceremony. Shevarim (she-vahr-EEM) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Shevat The eleventh month of the Jewish year, occurring in January/February.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Shield of David The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Shiksa A derogatory term for a non-Jewish female.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Shiva (SHI-vuh) Literally, seven.  The seven-day period of mourning after the burial of a close relative. Shkutz A derogatory term for a non-Jewish male.  See Jewish Attitudes Toward Non-Jews. Sh'lamim (shlah-MEEM) Literally, peace [offering].  A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Shloshim (shlohsh-EEM) Literally, thirty.  The thirty-day period of mourning after the burial of a close relative. Shochet (SHOH-khet) Kosher slaughterer. Shofar (sho-FAHR) A ram's horn, blown like a trumpet as a call to repentance.  See Rosh Hashanah. Shomerim (shohm-REEM) Literally, guards, keepers.  People who sit with a body between the time of death and burial.  See Care for the Dead. Shul (SHOOL) The Yiddish term for a Jewish house of worship.  The term is used primarily by Orthodox Jews. Siddur (SID-r; sid-AWR) Literally, order.  Prayer book.  See Jewish Liturgy. Sidrah (SID-ruh) Literally, order.  A weekly Torah portion read in synagogue. Simchat Torah (SIM-khat TOH-ruh) Literally, rejoicing in the law.  A holiday celebrating the end and beginning of the cycle of weekly Torah readings. Sin Offering A type of sacrifice used to atone for and expiate unintentional sins. Sivan The third month of the Jewish year, occurring in May/June.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Slander Slander is a serious sin in Judaism, even if the disparaging comment is true.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Speech For information about the power of speech and sins committed through speech, see Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra.  For information about pronouncing the Name of God, see The Name of God. Star of David The six-pointed star emblem commonly associated with Judaism. Sukkah (SUK-uh) Literally, booth.  The temporary dwellings we live in during the holiday of Sukkot. Sukkot (soo-KOHT; SUK-uhs) Literally, booths.  A festival commemorating the wandering in the desert and the final harvest. Symbols See Signs and Symbols. Synagogue (SIN-uh-gahg) From a Greek root meaning assembly.  The most widely accepted term for a Jewish house of worship. - T - Taharat Ha-Mishpachah (tah-HAH-raht hah-meesh-PAH-khah) Literally, family purity.  Laws relating to the separation of husband and wife during the woman's menstrual period.  Also referred to as the laws of niddah. Takkanah (t'-KAH-nuh) A law instituted by the rabbis and not derived from any biblical commandment. Tale-Bearing Tale-bearing is a serious sin in Judaism.  See Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra. Tallit (TAH-lit; TAH-lis) A shawl-like garment worn during morning services, with tzitzit (long fringes) attached to the corners as a reminder of the commandments. Tallit Katan (TAH-lit kuh-TAHN) Literally, small tallit.  A four-cornered, poncho-like garment worn under a shirt so that we may have the opportunity to fulfill the commandment to put tzitzit (fringes) on the corners of our garments. Talmud (TAHL-mud) The most significant collection of the Jewish oral tradition interpreting the Torah. Tammuz The fourth month of the Jewish year, occurring in June/July.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Tanakh (tuhn-AHKH) Acronym of Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings).  Written Torah; what non-Jews call the Old Testament. Tashlikh (TAHSH-likh) Literally, casting off.  A custom of going to a river and symbolically casting off one's sins.  See Rosh Hashanah. Tefillah (t'-FEE-luh) Prayer.  Sometimes refers specifically to the Shemoneh Esrei prayer.  See Prayers and Blessings; Jewish Liturgy. Tefillin (t'-FIL-lin) Phylacteries.  Leather pouches containing scrolls with passages of scripture, used to fulfill the commandment to bind the commandments to our hands and between our eyes. Tekiah (t'-KEE-uh) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Temple The central place of worship in ancient Jerusalem, where sacrifices were offered, destroyed in 70 C.E.  Reform Jews commonly use the term "temple" to refer to their houses of worship. Teruah (t'-ROO-uh) One of four characteristic blasts of the shofar (ram's horn).  See Rosh Hashanah. Teshuvah (t'-SHOO-vuh) Literally, return.  repentance. Tevet The tenth month of the Jewish year, occurring in December/January.  See Months of the Jewish Year. Tisha B'Av (TISH-uh BAHV) Literally, The Ninth of Av.  A fast day commemorating the destruction of the First and Second Temples, as well as other tragedies. Tishri The seventh month of the Biblical Jewish year and the first month of the regular Jewish year, during which many important holidays occur.  See also Months of the Jewish Year. Torah (TOH-ruh) In its narrowest sense, Torah is Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  In its broadest sense, Torah is the entire body of Jewish teachings. Torah Readings Each week, a different portion of the Torah and the Prophets are read in synagogue. Torah Scroll The Torah (Bible) that is read in synagogue is written on a leather scroll. Tractate A subdivision of the Mishnah and Talmud. Transliteration The process of writing Hebrew using the Roman (English) alphabet.  More an art than a science. Treyf (TRAYF) Literally, torn.  A term loosely used to refer to food that is not kosher. Tu B'Shevat (TOO bish-VAHT) Literally, 15th of Shevat.  The new year for the purpose of counting the age of trees for purposes of tithing. Tzaddik (TSAH-deek) Literally, righteous person.  The leader of a Chasidic community, often believed to have special, mystical power.  Also called a rebbi. Tzedakah (tsi-DUH-kuh) Literally, righteousness.  Generally refers to charity. Tzimmes (TSIM-is) Yiddish.  A sweet stew.  The word can also refer to making a big fuss over something. Tzitzit (TZIT-sit) Fringes attached to the corners of garments as a reminder of the commandments. - U - Ufruf (UF-ruf) The groom's aliyah on the Shabbat before his wedding. Unpointed Text Hebrew text written without vowel points.  Hebrew should be written without vowels; however, many texts add vowel points to aid pronunciation and comprehension.  See Hebrew Alphabet. - W - Wedding See Marriage; A Typical Wedding Ceremony. Women See The Role of Women; Marriage. Work Activities involving creation or exercise of control over the environment, which are prohibited on Shabbat and certain holidays. Writings A section of Jewish scripture containing various writings.  See Torah - Written Torah. Written Torah (TOH-ruh) The scripture that non-Jews call the Old Testament. - Y - Yad (YAHD) Literally, hand.  Hand-shaped pointer used while reading from Torah scrolls. Yahrzeit (YAHR-tsahyt) Yiddish:  literally, anniversary.  The anniversary of the death of a close relative.  See Mourning. Yarmulke (YAH-mi-kuh) From Tartar "skullcap", or from Aramaic "Yirei Malka" (fear of the King).  The skullcap worn by Jews during services, and by some Jews at all times. Year See Jewish Calendar. Yemenite Jews The Jews of the Middle Eastern country of Yemen, whose customs and practices are somewhat different from those of Ashkenazic or Sephardic Jews.  See Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews. Yetzer Ra (YAY-tser RAH) Literally, evil impulse.  The selfish desire for satisfaction of personal needs, which can lead a person to do evil if not restrained by the yetzer tov.  See Human Nature; Kosher Sex. Yetzer Tov (YAY-tser TOHV) Literally, good impulse.  The moral conscience, which motivates us to follow God's law.  See Human Nature. Yiddish (YID-ish) The "international language" of Ashkenazic Jews, based primarily on German with words taken from Hebrew and many Slavic languages, and written in the Hebrew Alphabet. Yizkor (YIZ-kawr) Literally, may He remember.  Prayers said on certain holidays in honor of deceased close relatives.  See Mourning. Yom Ha-Atzmz'ut (YOHM hah ahts-mah-OOT) Israeli Independence Day. Yom Ha-Shoah (YOHM hah shoh-AH) Holocaust Remembrance Day. Yom Ha-Zikkaron (YOHM hah zee-kah-ROHN) Israeli Memorial Day. Yom Kippur (YOHM ki-PAWR) Literally, Day of Atonement.  A day set aside for fasting, depriving oneself of pleasures, and repenting from the sins of the previous year. Yom Yerushalayim (YOHM y'-roo-shah-LAH-yeem) Holiday celebrating the reunification of Jerusalem in the hands of the modern state of Israel. - Z - Zealots A movement of Judaism that existed around the time of the dawn of Christianity.  It died out shortly after the destruction of the Temple. Zebach Sh'lamim (zeh-BAKH shlah-MEEM) Literally, peace offering.  A type of sacrifice expressing thanks or gratitude. Zohar (ZOH-hahr) The primary written work in the mystical tradition of Kabbalah. Prev | Table of Contents Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

Torah 101 Table of Contents

Ideas | People | Places | Things | Words | Deeds | Times | Life Events | Reference | Links Torah 101 Table of Contents Back to Home Page Introduction to Torah 101 Download a zipped copy of Torah 101 for study offline. Current Calendar The current Hebrew calendar showing all holidays and scriptural readings. Support Our Site   Search in both English and Hebrew              Search     powered by FreeFind   Ideas What Do Jews Believe? Basic The Nature of God Intermediate Human Nature Advanced Mashiach:  The Messiah Intermediate Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism Advanced People Who Is a Jew? Basic Movements of Judaism Basic Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews Basic Gentiles Basic The Role of Women Intermediate Rabbis, Priests, and Other Functionaries Basic Sages and Scholars Intermediate Prophets and Prophecy Intermediate Places Synagogues, Shuls, and Temples Basic Things Signs and Symbols Basic Jewish Cooking Basic Words Hebrew Alphabet Basic Hebrew Language:  Root Words Intermediate The Name of God Basic Torah Basic Weekly Torah Readings Intermediate Prayers and Blessings Intermediate Jewish Liturgy Intermediate Deeds Halakhah:  Jewish Law Intermediate Love and Brotherhood Basic Speech and Lashon Ha-Ra Intermediate Kashrut:  Jewish Dietary Laws Intermediate Kosher Sex Advanced Tzedakah:  Charity Intermediate Treatment of Animals Intermediate Qorbanot:  Sacrifices and Offerings Advanced A List of the 613 Mitzvot (Commandments) Advanced Times Jewish Calendar Basic Shabbat Basic Jewish Holidays Basic Introduction Basic The Month of Tishri Basic Rosh Hashanah Basic Days of Awe Basic Yom Kippur Basic Sukkot Basic Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah Basic Chanukkah Basic Tu B'Shevat Basic Purim Basic Pesach (Passover) Basic The Counting of the Omer Basic Shavu'ot Basic Tisha B'Av Basic Minor Fasts Basic 20th Century Holidays Basic Life Events Birth and the First Month of Life Basic Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah, and Confirmation Basic Marriage Basic Divorce Basic Life, Death, and Mourning Basic Reference Bibliography Basic Common Prayers and Blessings Intermediate Glossary of Jewish Terminology Basic Other Torah Links: AishDas Torah Links (hundreds of selected Torah links, well organized by categories and with search engine) Our MTR freeware program for the PC (Mechon Mamre's Jewish Legal Classics program for those who read Hebrew, including the Bible, Mishneh Torah, Talmud, and more); also our version of Mishneh Torah and the Bible in Hebrew for the Palm Pilot. Snunit's Kodesh Site (an all Hebrew site for searching and reading in the Bible and Jewish Law texts with very useful linking between the Bible and Jewish Law texts, based with our permission on the texts as they were on this site in late 2003) Judaic Seminar (understanding the Bible from a humanistic scholarly observant Jewish perspective, Orthodox Sephardic views on practical problems in Jewish Law, and more) The About.com Guide to Judaism (formerly the Mining Company's Guide to Judaism--a great resource for Jewish information with extensive links, nicely organized according to subject matter) Soc.Culture.Jewish FAQ (a large detailed FAQ with information from several movements' perspectives) Shamash Home Page (a variety of Jewish mailing lists, archives, Bible commentary and Hebrew and English Bible texts for computer, and more) Jews for Judaism (the counter-missionary organization, whose FAQ is highly recommended reading for Jews and Gentiles alike) Ideas | People | Places | Things | Words | Deeds | Times | Life Events | Reference | Links Got a question or comment?  "Torah 101" is © 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 by Mechon Mamre, 12 Hayyim Vital St., Jerusalem, Israel.  972-2-652-1906 last updated:  24 January 2012

Halakhah

Prev | Table of Contents | Next What is Halakhah? | What Does Halakhah Consist of? | The 613 Mitzvot | Fence Around the Torah | Law Instituted by the Rabbis | Custom with the Status of Law Halakhah:  Jewish Law Level:  Intermediate What is Halakhah? Judaism is not just a set of beliefs about God, man, and the universe.  Judaism is a comprehensive way of life, filled with rules and practices that affect every aspect of life:  what you do when you wake up in the morning, what you can and cannot eat, what you can and cannot wear, how to groom yourself, how to conduct business, who you can marry, how to observe the holidays and Sabbaths, and perhaps most important, how to behave towards God, other people, and animals.  This set of rules and practices is known as halakhah. The word "halakhah" is usually translated as "Jewish Law", although a more literal translation might be "the path that one walks".  The word is derived from the Hebrew root Heh-Lamed-Kaf, meaning to go, to walk, or to travel. Some non-Jews and non-observant Jews criticize this legalistic aspect of traditional Judaism, saying that it reduces the religion to a set of rituals devoid of spirituality.  While there are certainly some Jews who observe halakhah in this way, that is not the intention of halakhah, and it is not even the correct way to observe halakhah. On the contrary, when properly observed, halakhah increases the spirituality in a person's life, because it turns the most trivial, mundane acts, such as eating and getting dressed, into acts of religious significance.  When people write and ask how to increase their spirituality or the influence of their religion in their lives, the only answer we can think of is:  observe more halakhah.  Keep kosher or light sabbath candles, say the grace after meals, or pray once or twice a day.  When you do these things, you are constantly reminded of your faith, and it becomes an integral part of your entire existence. What Does Halakhah Consist of? Halakhah is made up of mitzvot from the Torah as well as laws instituted by the rabbis and certain customs.  All of these have the status of Jewish law and all are equally binding.  The only difference is that the penalties for violating laws and customs instituted by the rabbis are less severe than the penalties for violating Torah law, and laws instituted by the rabbis can be changed by the rabbis in rare, appropriate circumstances. The 613 Mitzvot At the heart of halakhah is the unchangeable 613 mitzvot that God gave to the Jewish people in the Torah (the first five books of the Bible).  The word "mitzvah" means commandment.  In its strictest sense, it refers only to commandments instituted in the Torah; however, the word is commonly used in a more generic sense to include all of the laws, practices and customs of halakhah, and is often used in an even more loose way to refer to any good deed. Some of the mitzvot are clear, explicit commands in the Bible (thou shalt not murder; to write words of Torah on the doorposts of your house), others are more implicit (the mitzvah to recite grace after meals, which is inferred from "and you will eat and be satisfied and bless the LORD your God"), and some can only be ascertained by Talmudic logic (that a man shall not commit incest with his daughter, which is derived from the commandment not to commit incest with his daughter's daughter). Some of the mitzvot overlap; for example, it is a positive commandment to rest on the Sabbath and a negative commandment not to do work on the Sabbath. Although there is not 100% agreement on the precise list of the 613 (there are some slight discrepancies in the way some lists divide related or overlapping mitzvot), there is complete agreement that there are 613 mitzvot.  This number is significant:  it is the numeric value of the word Torah (Tav = 400, Vav = 6, Resh = 200, Heh = 5), plus 2 for the two mitzvot whose existence precedes the Torah:  "I am the LORD, your God" and "You shall have no other gods before Me".  There is also complete agreement that these 613 mitzvot can be broken down into 248 positive mitzvot (one for each bone and organ of the male body) and 365 negative mitzvot (one for each day of the solar year). The most accepted list of the 613 mitzvot is Maimonides' list in his Mishneh Torah.  In the introduction to the first book of Mishneh Torah, Maimonides lists all of the positive mitzvot and all of the negative mitzvot, then proceeds to divide them up into subject matter categories.  See List of the 613 Mitzvot. Many of these 613 mitzvot cannot be observed at this time for various reasons.  For example, a large portion of the laws relate to sacrifices and offerings, which can only be made in the Temple, and the Temple does not exist today.  Some of the laws relate to the theocratic state of Israel, its king, its supreme court, and its system of justice, and cannot be observed because the theocratic state of Israel does not exist today.  In addition, some laws do not apply to all people or places.  Most agricultural laws only apply within the Land of Israel, and certain laws only apply to kohanim or Levites.  The modern scholar Rabbi Israel Meir of Radin, commonly known as the Chafetz Chayim, has identified 77 positive mitzvot and 194 negative mitzvot which can be observed outside of Israel today. Gezeirah:  A Fence around the Torah A gezeirah is a law instituted by the rabbis to prevent people from accidentally violating a Torah mitzvah.  For example, the Torah commands us not to work on the Sabbath, but a gezeirah commands us not to move a object only used to perform prohibited work (such as a pencil, money, a hammer), because someone handling the implement might forget that it was the Sabbath and perform prohibited work. It is important to note that from the point of view of the practicing Jew, there is no difference between a gezeirah and a Torah mitzvah.  Both are equally binding.  The difference is just in the severity of punishment:  a Torah violation of the Sabbath is punishable by death, while a rabbinical violation of a gezeirah is punishable by whipping. Another difference between a gezeirah and a mitzvah is that the rabbis can, in rare appropriate circumstances, modify, or abrogate a gezeirah.  Rabbis cannot change the Torah law that was commanded by God. Takkanah:  A Law Instituted by the Rabbis Halakhah also includes some laws that are not derived from mitzvot in the Torah.  A takkanah is a law that was instituted by the rabbis.  For example, the "mitzvah" to light candles on Chanukkah, a post-biblical holiday, is a takkanah.  The practice of public Torah readings every Monday and Thursday is a takkanah instituted by Ezra. Some takkanot vary from community to community or from region to region.  For example, around the year 1000 C.E., a rabbi instituted a prohibition of polygyny, a practice clearly permitted by the Torah and the Talmud.  It was accepted by Ashkenazic Jews, who lived in Christian countries where polygyny was not permitted, but was not accepted by Sephardic Jews, who lived in Islamic countries where men were permitted up to four wives. A takkanah, like a gezeirah, is just as binding as a Torah mitzvah. Minhag:  A Custom with the Status of Law A minhag is a custom that evolved for worthy religious reasons and has continued long enough to become a binding religious practice.  For example, the second, extra day of holidays was originally instituted as a gezeirah, so that people outside of Israel, who were uncertain about the exact date of a holiday, would not accidentally violate the holiday's mitzvot.  After the mathematical calendar was instituted and there was no doubt about the days, the added second day was not necessary.  The rabbis considered ending the practice at that time, but decided to continue it as a binding custom (minhag). It is important to note that these "customs" are a binding part of halakhah, just like a mitzvah, a takkanah, or a gezeirah. The word "minhag" is also used in a looser sense, to indicate a community or an individual's customary way of doing some religious thing.  For example, it may be the minhag in one synagogue to stand while reciting a certain prayer, while in another synagogue it is the minhag to sit during that prayer.  Even in this looser sense, it is generally recommended that a person follow his own minhag, even when visiting another community. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment? 

Ritual Circumcision

Prev | Table of Contents | Next Birth | Naming a Child | Circumcision | Redemption of Firstborn | Adoption Birth and the First Month of Life Level:  Basic Birth In Jewish law, life begins at birth, that is, at the time when all of the child's head has emerged from the mother's body, or when the child is more than halfway out if the head does not come out first.  The consequences of this are discussed in more detail in the section on Abortion. The Torah completely rejects the notion of original sin.  According to the Torah, a child is born pure, completely free from sin.  We say daily "God, the soul which you have given me is pure.  You created it, You fashioned it, You breathed it into me". Birth by Caesarean section is permitted in Jewish law, as would be just about any procedure necessary to preserve the life of the mother or the child. Immediately after birth, a woman is considered as a niddah and must remain sexually separated from her husband for a period of seven days after the birth of a male child and 14 days after the birth of a female child (Leviticus 12,2).  This separation is the same as the regular monthly niddah separation.  In the days of the Temple, when considerations of ritual purity were more important, a woman was considered partially impure for an additional period of 33 days after the birth of a male child and 66 days after the birth of a female child.  No reason is stated why the period is longer for a female child than for a male child; however, it appears that a female child is not more defiling than a male child, because the method of purification at the end of this period is the same for both sexes. Naming a Child The formal Hebrew name is used in Jewish rituals, primarily in calling the person to the Torah for an aliyah, or in the ketubah (marriage contract).  There are no formal religious requirements for naming a child.  The name has no inherent religious significance.  In fact, the child's "Hebrew name" need not even be Hebrew; Yiddish names are often used, or even English ones.  Many in Israel only use their Hebrew names, rejecting non-Hebrew names (and, some, even family names) as a new custom imitating the Gentiles. A girl's name is officially given in synagogue when the father takes an aliyah after the birth, discussed above.  A boy's name is given during the brit milah (ritual circumcision). The standard form of a Hebrew name for a male is [child's name] ben [father's name], where "ben" means son of.  For a female, the form is [child's name] bat [father's name], where "bat" means daughter of.  If the child is a Kohein, the suffix ha-Kohein is added.  If the child is a Levi, the suffix ha-Levi is added. It is customary among Ashkenazic Jews to name a child after a recently deceased relative.  This custom comes partly from a desire to honor the dead relative, and partly from superstition against naming a child after a living relative.  It is almost unheard of for an Ashkenazic Jew to be named after his own father, though it does occasionally happen.  Among Sephardic Jews, it is not unusual to name a child after a parent or living relative. Brit Milah:  Circumcision Of all of the Torah's 613 commandments, the "brit milah" (literally, Covenant of Circumcision) is probably the one most universally observed.  It is commonly referred to as a "brit" (covenant).  Even the most secular of Jews, who observe no other part of Torah, are almost always circumcised.  In countries where all males are routinely surgically circumcised, this does not seem very surprising.  But keep in mind that there is more to the ritual of the brit milah than merely the process of physically removing the foreskin, and many otherwise non-observant Jews observe the entire ritual. The commandment to circumcise is given at Genesis 17,10-14 and Leviticus 12,3.  The covenant was originally made with Abraham. Like so many Jewish commandments, the brit milah is commonly perceived to be a hygienic measure; however the biblical text states the reason for this commandment quite clearly:  circumcision is an outward physical sign of the eternal covenant between God and the Jewish people.  It is also a sign that the Jewish people will be perpetuated through the circumcised man.  The health benefits of this practice are merely incidental.  It is worth noting, however, that circumcised males have a lower risk of certain cancers, and the sexual partners of circumcised males also have a lower risk of certain cancers. The commandment is binding upon both the father of the child and the child himself.  If a father does not have his son circumcised, the son is obligated to have himself circumcised as soon as he becomes an adult.  A person who is uncircumcised suffers the penalty of karet, spiritual excision; in other words, regardless of how good a Jew he is in all other ways, a man has no place in the World to Come if he is uncircumcised. Circumcision is performed on the eighth day of the child's life, during the day.  The day the child is born counts as the first day, thus if the child is born on a Wednesday, he is circumcised on the following Wednesday.  Keep in mind that Jewish days begin at sunset, so if the child is born on a Wednesday evening, he is circumcised the following Thursday.  Circumcisions are performed on Shabbat, even though they involve the drawing of blood which is ordinarily forbidden on the sabbath.  The Bible does not specify a reason for the choice of the eighth day; however, modern medicine has revealed that an infant's blood clotting mechanism stabilizes on the eighth day after birth.  As with almost any commandment, circumcision can be postponed for health reasons.  Jewish law provides that where the child's health is at issue, circumcision must wait until seven days after a serious illness. Circumcision involves surgically removing the foreskin of the penis.  Although some cultures have a similar circumcision ritual for females, circumcision in Torah applies only to males.  The circumcision is performed by a "mohel" (literally, circumciser), a pious, observant Jew educated in the relevant Jewish law and in surgical techniques.  Circumcision performed by a regular non-observant or non-Jewish physician does not qualify as a valid brit milah, regardless of whether a rabbi says a blessing over it, because the removal of the foreskin is itself a religious ritual that must be performed by someone religiously qualified. If the child is born without a foreskin (it happens occasionally), or if the child was previously circumcised without the appropriate religious intent or in a manner that rendered the circumcision religiously invalid, a symbolic circumcision may be performed by taking a pinprick of blood from the tip of the penis.  This is referred to as hatafat dam brit. While the circumcision is performed, the child is held by a person called a sandak.  In English, this is often referred to as a godfather.  It is an honor to be a sandak for a brit.  The sandak is usually a grandparent or the family rabbi.  Traditionally, a chair (often an ornate one) is set aside for Elijah, who is said to preside over all circumcisions.  Various blessings are recited, including one over wine, and a drop of wine is placed in the child's mouth.  The child is then given a formal Hebrew name. It is not necessary to have a minyan for a brit. As with most Jewish life events, the ritual is followed by refreshments or a festive meal. In recent times, some psychologists have hypothesized that infant circumcision has harmful psychological effects, and may cause sexual dysfunction.  To the best of our knowledge, there is no concrete, statistical evidence that circumcision has any harmful effect.  However, some people have written asking about the Jewish opinion on this controversy.  From the traditional Jewish point of view, there is no controversy.  The ritual of circumcision was commanded by our Creator, and He certainly knows what is and is not good for us.  The God who commanded us not to harm ourselves certainly would not command us to do something harmful to ourselves, and even if He did, the observant Jew would nonetheless heed His wishes. Pidyon ha-Ben:  Redemption of the First Born The first and best of all things belongs to God.  This is true even of the firstborn of children.  Originally, it was intended that the firstborn would serve as the priests and Temple functionaries of Israel; however, after the incident of the Golden Calf, in which the tribe of Levi did not participate, God chose the tribe of Levi over the firstborn for this sacred role.  This is explained in Numbers 8,14-18.  However, even though their place has been taken by the Levites, the firstborn still retain a certain degree of sanctity, and for this reason, they must be redeemed. The ritual of redemption is referred to as pidyon ha-ben, literally, Redemption of the Son. A firstborn son must be redeemed after he reaches 31 days of age.  Ordinarily, the ritual is performed on the 31st day (the day of birth being the first day); however, the ritual cannot be performed on Shabbat because it involves the exchange of money.  The child is redeemed by paying a small sum (five silver shekels in biblical times) to a kohein (preferably a pious one familiar with the procedure) and performing a brief ritual.  This procedure is commanded at Numbers 18,15-16. It is important to remember that rabbis are not necessarily koheins and koheins are not necessarily rabbis.  Redemption from a rabbi is not valid unless the rabbi is also a kohein.  See Rabbis, Priests, and Other Religious Functionaries for more information about this distinction. The ritual of pidyon ha-ben applies to a relatively small portion of the Jewish people.  It applies only to the firstborn male child if it is born by natural childbirth.  Thus, if a female is the firstborn, no child in the family is subject to the ritual.  If the first child is born by Caesarean section, the ritual does not apply to that child (nor, according to most sources, to any child born after that child).  If the first conception ends in miscarriage that qualifies for the mother to be impure as if she had born a fully developed child, it does not apply to any subsequent child.  It does not apply to members of the tribe of Levi, or children born to a daughter of a member of the tribe of Levi. Adoption There is no formal procedure of adoption in Jewish law.  Adoption as it exists in civil law is irrelevant, because civil adoption is essentially a transfer of title from one parent to another, and in Jewish law, parents do not own their children.  However, the Torah does have certain laws that are relevant in circumstances where a child is raised by someone other than the birth parents. Matters relevant to the child's status are determined by the status of the birth parents, not by that of the adoptive parents.  The child's status as a Kohein, a Levi, a Jew, and/or a firstborn, are all determined by reference to the birth parents. This issue of status is particularly important in the case of non-Jewish children adopted by Jews.  Children born of non-Jewish parents are not Jewish, regardless of who raises them.  The status as a Jew is more a matter of citizenship than a matter of belief.  For more information about this issue, see Who is a Jew? If Jewish parents adopt a non-Jewish child, the child must be converted.  This process is somewhat simpler for an infant than it is for an adult convert, because there is generally no need to try to talk the person out of converting, no need for prior education.  It is really more of a formality.  The conversion must be approved by a Bet Din (rabbinic court), a circumcision or hatafat dam brit must be performed, the child must be immersed in a kosher mikveh, and the parents must commit to educating the child as a Jew.  For more details about the process of conversion generally, See Conversion. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

The Seven Laws of Noah

Prev | Table of Contents | Next The Seven Laws of Noah | Terms Used for Gentiles | Interfaith Marriages | Conversion Gentiles Level:  Basic The Torah maintains that the righteous Gentiles of all nations (those observing the Seven Laws of Noah, listed below) have a place in the World to Come.  But not all religious Gentiles earn eternal life by virtue of observing their religion: While it is recognized that Moslems worship the same God that we do (though calling him Allah, He is the same God of Israel), even those who follow the tenets of their religion cannot be considered righteous in the eyes of God, because they do not accept that the Written Torah in the hands of the Jews today is the original Torah handed down by God and they do not accept the Seven Laws of Noah as binding on them. While the Christians do generally accept the Hebrew Bible as truly from God, many of them (those who accept the so-called divinity of Jesus) are idolaters according to the Torah, punishable by death, and certainly will not enjoy the World to Come.  But it is not just being a member of a denomination in which the majority are believers in the Trinity that is idolatry, but personal idolatrous practice, whatever the individual's affiliation. Contrary to popular belief, the Torah does not maintain that Jews are necessarily better than other people simply because they are Jews.  Although we are God's chosen people, we do not believe that God chose the Jews because of any inherent superiority.  According to a story in the Talmud, God offered the Torah to all the nations of the earth, and the Jews were the only ones who accepted it.  According to another story, the Jews were offered the Torah last, and accepted it only because God held a mountain over their heads!  Another traditional story suggests that God chose the Jews because they were the lowliest of nations, and their success would be attributed to God's might rather than their own ability.  Clearly, these are not the ideas of a people who think they are inherently better than other nations. Because of our acceptance of Torah, Jews have a special status in the eyes of God, but we lose that special status when we abandon Torah.  Furthermore, the blessings that we received from God by accepting the Torah come with a high price:  Jews have a greater responsibility than non-Jews.  While non-Jews are only obligated to obey the seven commandments given to Noah, Jews are responsible for fulfilling the 613 mitzvot in the Torah, thus God will punish Jews for doing many things that would not be a sin for non-Jews. The Seven Laws of Noah According to Torah tradition, God gave Noah and his family seven commandments to observe when he saved them from the flood.  These commandments, referred to as the Noahic or Noahide commandments, are learned by tradition but also suggested in Genesis Chapter 9, and are as follows: not to commit idolatry not to commit blasphemy not to commit murder not to have forbidden sexual relations not to commit theft not to eat flesh cut from a living animal to establish courts of justice to punish violators of the other six laws. These commandments may seem fairly simple and straightforward, and most of them are recognized by most of the world as sound moral principles.  But according to the Torah only those Gentiles who observe these laws because God commanded them in His Torah will enjoy life in the World to Come:  If they observe them just because they seem reasonable or because they think that God commanded them in some way other than in the Torah, they might as well not obey them so far as a part in the World to Come is concerned. The Noahic commandments are binding on all people, because all people are descended from Noah and his family.  The 613 mitzvot of the Torah, on the other hand, are only binding on the descendants of those who accepted the commandments at Sinai and upon those who take on the yoke of the commandments voluntarily (by conversion).  Some say that the Noahic commandments are applied more leniently to non-Jews than the corresponding commandments are to Jews, because non-Jews do not have the benefit of Oral Torah to guide them in interpreting the laws.  Some European rabbis (presumably because of fear of reprisal from their Christian neighbors, famous for their violence to Jews) have gone so far as to say that worshipping God in the form of a man constitutes idolatry for a Jew punishable by death, but the Trinitarian Christian worship of Jesus does not constitute idolatry.  In truth, any idolatry for which a Jew is punishable by death is also punishable by death for non-Jews, including the worship of a man as a god. We plan to provide on this site a full exposition of Seven Laws, including many details that could not be guessed from the listing above. Terms Used for Gentiles It appears that some Gentiles prefer the more neutral term non-Jew, but few today are insulted by Gentile, the classical term for them appearing often in Bible translations.  When we use it here, we certainly intend no offence and hope that none is taken; we would not be writing much of this, if we were lacking in respect and affection for Gentiles. The most commonly used Hebrew or Yiddish word for a non-Jew is goy.  The word "goy" means nation, and refers to the fact that goyim are members of other nations, that is, nations other than the Children of Israel.  There is nothing inherently insulting about the word "goy".  In fact, the Bible occasionally refers to the Jewish people using the term "goy".  Most notably, in Exodus 19,6, God says that the Children of Israel will be "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation", that is, a goy kadosh.  Because Jews have had so many bad experiences with anti-Semitic non-Jews over the centuries, the term "goy" has taken on some negative connotations, but in general the term is no more insulting than the word "Gentile". The more insulting terms for non-Jews are shiksa (feminine) and shkutz or sheketz (masculine).  It may be gathered that these words are derived from the Hebrew root Shin-Qof-Tzade, meaning loathsome or abomination.  The word shiksa is most commonly used to refer to a non-Jewish woman who is dating or married to a Jewish man, which should give some indication of how strongly Jews are opposed to the idea of intermarriage.  The term shkutz or sheketz is most commonly used to refer to an anti-Semitic man.  Both terms can be used in a less serious, more joking way, but in general they should be used with caution, if at all; in fact, we personally only use these terms to refer to apostate Jews whose behavior is disgusting. Interfaith Marriages The Torah does not permit or even recognize marriages between Jews and Gentiles, if performed despite the prohibition.  The punishment for Jews for such marriages is being cut off from the Jewish people and any part in the World to Come, whether the couple formally marries according to secular law or they just live together. The Written Torah states that the children of such marriages would be lost to the Jewish people (Deuteronomy 7,3-4), and experience has shown the truth of this passage all too well:  Children of intermarriage are rarely raised Jewish; they are normally raised in the faith of the non-Jewish partner or non-religious.  This may reflect that Jews who intermarry are not deeply committed to their religion in the first place (if they were, why would they marry someone who did not share it?), but the statistics are sufficiently alarming to be a matter of great concern to the Jewish community. Some Orthodox Jews go so far as to state that intermarriage is accomplishing what Hitler could not:  the destruction of the Jewish people.  That may seem an extreme view, but it vividly illustrates how seriously many Jews take the issue of intermarriage.  Nonetheless, currently most Jews outside the Land of Israel are taking non-Jewish marital partners. If the non-Jewish spouse truly shares the same values as the Jewish spouse, then the non-Jew is welcome to convert, and if the non-Jew does not share the same values, then the couple should not be marrying in the first place.  While conversion just to allow a Gentile to marry a Jew is not legitimate, many a Gentile initially considered conversion after finding a Jewish potential marital partner, and then in the end became a sincere convert before the marriage. Conversion In general, Jews do not try to convert non-Jews to Judaism.  In fact, according to halakhah (Jewish Law), rabbis are supposed to make three vigorous attempts to dissuade a person who wants to convert to Judaism. As the discussion above explained, Jews have a lot of responsibilities that non-Jews do not have.  To be considered a good and righteous person in the eyes of God, a non-Jew need only follow the seven Noahic commandments, whereas a Jew has to follow all 613 commandments given in the Torah.  If the potential convert is not going to follow those extra rules, it is better for him or her to stay a Gentile, and since we as Jews are all responsible for each other, it is better for us too if that person stayed a Gentile.  The rabbinically mandated attempt to dissuade a convert is intended to make sure that the prospective convert is serious and willing to take on all this extra responsibility. Once a person has decided to convert, the proselyte must begin to learn Jewish law and customs, and begin to observe them.  This teaching process generally takes at least one year, because the prospective convert is encouraged to experience each of the Jewish holidays; however, the actual amount of study required will vary from person to person (a convert who was raised as a Jew might not need any further education, for example, while another person might need several years). After the teaching is complete, the proselyte is brought before a Beit Din (rabbinical court) which examines the proselyte and determines whether he or she is ready to become a Jew.  If the proselyte passes this oral examination, the rituals of conversion are performed.  If the convert is male, he is circumcised (or, if he was already circumcised, a pinprick of blood is drawn for a symbolic circumcision).  Both male and female converts are immersed in the mikveh (a ritual bath used for spiritual purification).  The convert is given a Jewish name and is then introduced into the Jewish community. In theory, once the conversion procedure is complete, the convert is as much a Jew as anyone who is born to the religion.  In practice, the convert is often treated with caution, because we have had a lot of bad experiences with converts who later return to their former faith in whole or in part. For more information about conversion, see The Conversion to Judaism Home Page.  The information provided by Professor Epstein at that site is written from a Conservative perspective, but is valuable to anyone considering conversion. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!

List of the 613 Mitzvot

Prev | Table of Contents | Next A List of the 613 Mitzvot Level:  Advanced Below is the list of the 613 mitzvot (commandments) as brought in the Preface to Mishneh Torah by the Rambam or Maimonides in our translation from the original Hebrew. In addition to this list according to the overall structure of Mishneh Torah, the Rambam also provides separate lists of the Positive Commandments and Negative Commandments, for most of which there are citations to the verses that are the basis for the commandments (and we have provided links from them to the Bible passages, so that one may see the verses in their full context). Structure of the 14 Books of Mishneh Torah I have seen fit to divide this work into fourteen books: Book 1  I include in it all the commandments that are the basic principles of the religion of Moshe [Moses] Our Teacher, which one needs to know at the outset--such as recognizing the unity of the Holy One blessed be He and the prohibition of idolatry.  I have called this book The Book of Knowledge. Book 2  I include in it the commandments that are done frequently, which we have been commanded to do so that we may always love God and remember Him constantly--such as reciting the Shema`, prayer, tefillin, and blessings; circumcision is included, because it is a sign in our flesh to constantly remind us when we are not in tefillin or tzitzit or the like.  I have called this book The Book of Love. Book 3  I include in it the commandments to be done at fixed times--such as Sabbath and holidays.  I have called this book The Book of Times. Book 4  I include in it the commandments on sexual relations--such as marriage and divorce, and levirate marriage and release from it.  I have called this book The Book of Women. Book 5  I include in it the commandments on forbidden sexual relations and commandments on forbidden foods--for in these two matters the Omnipresent sanctified us and separated us from the nations, in forbidden sexual relations and forbidden foods, and of both it is written "and I have set you apart from the peoples" (Leviticus 20,26), "who have set you apart from the peoples" (Leviticus 20,24).  I have called this book The Book of Holiness. Book 6  I include in it commandments by which one undertakes to forbid himself in certain things--such as oaths and vows.  I have called this book The Book of Promising. Book 7  I include in it commandments on seed of the land--such as Sabbatical years and Jubilees, tithes and heave offerings, and the other commandments akin to these matters.  I have called this book The Book of Seeds. Book 8  I include in it commandments on building the Temple and perpetual public sacrifices.  I have called this book The Book of Service. Book 9  I include in it commandments on sacrifices of the individual.  I have called this book The Book of Sacrifices. Book 10  I include in it commandments on ritual purity and impurity.  I have called this book The Book of Ritual Purity. Book 11  I include in it commandments on civil relations in which there is injury at the offset to either property or person.  I have called this book The Book of Injuries. Book 12  I include in it commandments on sale and purchase.  I have called this book The Book of Acquisition. Book 13  I include in it commandments on other civil relations in cases that do not have at the outset any injury--such as deposits, and debts, and claims and denials.  I have called this book The Book of Judgments. Book 14  I include in it commandments that are delegated to the Sanhedrin--such as capital punishment, and receiving testimony, and administration of the king and his wars.  I have called this book The Book of Judges.   The following is the division of the groups of laws in this work according to the subjects of the books, and the division of the commandments according to subjects of the groups of laws:   The Book of Knowledge Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of the Foundations of the Torah, Laws of Personal Development, Laws of Torah Study, Laws of Idolatry and Gentile Customs, Laws of Repentance Laws of the Foundations of the Torah include ten commandments, six positive commandments and four negative commandments, which are:  (1) to know that there is God; (2) not to entertain the thought that there is any god but the LORD; (3) to acknowledge His Oneness; (4) to love Him; (5) to fear Him; (6) to sanctify His Name; (7) not to profane His Name; (8) not to destroy things upon which His Name is called; (9) to obey the prophet who speaks in His Name; (10) not to test Him. Laws of Personal Development include eleven commandments, five positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to imitate His ways; (2) to cleave to those who know Him; (3) to love fellow Jews; (4) to love converts; (5) not to hate fellow Jews; (6) to rebuke; (7) not to shame others; (8) not to afflict the unfortunate; (9) not to gossip; (10) not to take revenge; (11) not to bear a grudge. Laws of Torah Study include two positive commandments:  (1) to study Torah; (2) to honor those who teach it and know it. Laws of Idolatry and Gentile Customs include fifty-one commandments, two positive commandments and forty-nine negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to turn to idolatry; (2) not to stray after thoughts of the heart and sights of the eyes; (3) not to blaspheme; (4) not to worship an object of idolatry in its normal way; (5) not to prostrate oneself to it; (6) not to make a graven image for oneself; (7) not to make a graven image even for others; (8) not to make figures even for decoration; (9) not to proselytize others after it; (10) to burn a city that has been proselytized over to idolatry; (11) not to rebuild it; (12) not to benefit from any of its property; (13) not to entice an individual to worship it; (14) not to love the enticer; (15) not to leave off hating him; (16) not to save him; (17) not to plead for his acquittal; (18) not to refrain from pleading for his conviction; (19) not to prophesy in its name; (20) not to listen to one who prophesies in its name; (21) not to prophesy falsely, even in the name of the LORD; (22) not to fear killing a false prophet; (23) not to swear in the name of idolatry; (24) not to divine by consulting ghosts; (25) not to resort to familiar spirits; (26) not to turn over to Molech; (27) not to set up a pillar; (28) not to prostrate oneself on a figured stone; (29) not to plant a tree for worship; (30) to destroy an object of idolatry and everything made for it; (31) not to benefit from an object of idolatry or any of its accessories; (32) not to benefit from the coverings of anything worshipped; (33) not to make a covenant with idolaters; (34) not to show them favor; (35) that they must not settle in our Land; (36) not to imitate their customs or their dress; (37) not to practice divination; (38) not to practice black magic; (39) not to practice soothsaying; (40) not to practice the charmer's art; (41) not to enquire of the dead; (42) not to consult a ghost; (43) not to consult a familiar spirit; (44) not to practice witchcraft; (45) not to shave the corners of the head; (46) not to remove the corners of the beard; (47) that a man shall not wear the attire of a woman; (48) that a woman shall not wear the attire of a man; (49) not to tattoo the body; (50) not to cut oneself; (51) not to make a bald spot for the dead. Laws of Repentance include one positive commandment, which is that the sinner shall repent of his sin before the LORD, and confess. All the commandments included in this book are thus seventy five, sixteen of them positive commandments and fifty-nine negative commandments.   The Book of Love Its groups of laws are six, and this is their order:  Laws of Reciting the Shema`, Laws of Prayer and Priestly Blessing, Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzah, and Torah Scroll, Laws of Tzitzit, Laws of Blessings, Laws of Circumcision Laws of Reciting the Shema` include one positive commandment, which is to recite the Shema` twice daily. Laws of Prayer and Priestly Blessing include two positive commandments:  (1) to serve the LORD in prayer daily; (2) for Priests to bless Israel daily. Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzah, and Torah Scroll include five positive commandments, which are:  (1) for there to be tefillin on the head; (2) to bind them on the arm; (3) to fix a mezuzah at entrances; (4) for every man to write a Torah scroll for himself; (5) for the King to write a second scroll for himself, so that he will have two Torah scrolls. Laws of Tzitzit include one positive commandment, which is to make tzitzit on the corners of garments. Laws of Blessings include one positive commandment, which is to bless His Name after eating. Laws of Circumcision include one positive commandment, which is to circumcise males on the eighth day. All the commandments included in this book are thus eleven positive commandments.   The Book of Times Its groups of laws are ten, and this is their order:  Laws of the Sabbath, Laws of Eruvin, Laws of Rest on the Tenth of Tishri, Laws of Rest on Holidays, Laws of Leaven and Unleavened Bread, Laws of Shofar, Sukkah, and Lolav, Laws of Sheqels, Laws of Sanctification of Months, Laws of Fasts, Laws of the Scroll of Esther and Hanukkah Laws of the Sabbath include five commandments, two positive commandments and three negative commandments, which are:  (1) to rest on the seventh day; (2) not to do work on it; (3) not to punish on the Sabbath; (4) not to leave the limits of one's settlement on the Sabbath; (5) to sanctify the day in speech. Laws of Eruvin include one positive commandment, which is rabbinical and not counted among the Torah commandments. Laws of Rest on the Tenth of Tishri include four commandments, two positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to rest on it from work; (2) not to do work on it; (3) to fast on it; (4) not to eat or drink on it. Laws of Rest on Holidays include twelve commandments, six positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to rest on the first day of Pesach; (2) not to do work on it; (3) to rest on the seventh day of Pesach; (4) not to do work on it; (5) to rest on the Festival of Shavu`ot; (6) not to do work on it; (7) to rest on Rosh Hashanah; (8) not to do work on it; (9) to rest on the first day of the Festival of Sukkot; (10) not to do work on it; (11) to rest on the eighth day of the Festival; (12) not to do work on it. Laws of Leaven and Unleavened Bread include eight commandments, three positive commandments and five negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to eat leavened food on the Fourteenth of Nisan, from noon onwards; (2) to get rid of leaven on the Fourteenth of Nisan; (3) not to eat leavened food during the seven days; (4) not to eat a mixture that contains leaven during the seven days; (5) that no leavened food is to be seen in one's possession during the seven days; (6) that no leavened food is to be found in one's possession during the seven days; (7) to eat unleavened bread on the night of Pesach; (8) to tell the story of the Exodus from Egypt on that night. Laws of Shofar, Sukkah, and Lolav include three positive commandments, which are:  (1) to hear the sound of the shofar on the First of Tishri; (2) to dwell in a sukkah seven days of the Festival; (3) to take up a Lolav in the Temple all seven days of the Festival. Laws of Sheqels include one positive commandment, which is for every man to give half a Sheqel every year. Laws of Sanctification of Months include one positive commandment, which is to calculate, know, and fix which day is to be the beginning of each and every month in the year. Laws of Fasts include one positive commandment, which is to fast and cry out before the LORD whenever a great calamity comes upon the public. Laws of the Scroll of Esther and Hanukkah include two positive rabbinical commandments, not counted among the Torah commandments. All the Torah commandments included in this book are thus thirty five, nineteen of them positive commandments and sixteen negative commandments; there are also three rabbinical commandments.   The Book of Women Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of Marriage, Laws of Divorce, Laws of Levirate Marriage and Release, Laws of the Virgin Maiden, Laws of a Woman Suspected of Adultery Laws of Marriage include four commandments, two positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to take a wife by marriage contract and sanctification ceremony; (2) for a woman not to have sexual relations without a marriage contract and sanctification ceremony; (3) not to withhold food, clothing, and conjugal rights; (4) to be fruitful and multiply from one's wife. Laws of Divorce include two commandments:  (1) a positive commandment, which is that one shall divorce with a written document; (2) that one shall not take back a former wife after her being married to another. Laws of Levirate Marriage and Release include three commandments, two positive commandments and one negative commandment, which are:  (1) to marry the widow of a brother who died childless; (2) to release the widow, if one does not marry her; (3) that such a widow not be married to another man until the levirate obligation has been removed. Laws of the Virgin Maiden include five commandments, three positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to fine the seducer; (2) that the rapist shall marry his victim; (3) that the rapist shall not divorce; (4) that the wife of one who defamed her as a non-virgin at marriage may remain with him forever; (5) that such a defamer shall not divorce his wife. Laws of a Woman Suspected of Adultery include three commandments, one positive commandment and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to do to a woman suspected of adultery the special procedure set out in the Torah; (2) not to put oil on her offering; (3) not to put frankincense on it. All the commandments included in this book are thus seventeen, nine of them positive commandments and eight negative commandments.   The Book of Holiness Its groups of laws are three, and this is their order:  Laws of Forbidden Sexual Relations, Laws of Forbidden Foods, Laws of Slaughter Laws of Forbidden Sexual Relations include thirty-seven commandments, one positive commandment and thirty-six negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to have sexual relations with one's mother; (2) not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife; (3) not to have sexual relations with one's sister; (4) not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife's daughter; (5) not to have sexual relations with one's son's daughter; (6) not to have sexual relations with one's daughter; (7) not to have sexual relations with one's daughter's daughter; (8) not to marry a woman and her daughter; (9) not to marry a woman and her son's daughter; (10) not to marry a woman and her daughter's daughter; (11) not to have sexual relations with one's father's sister; (12) not to have sexual relations with one's mother's sister; (13) not to have sexual relations with one's father's brother's wife; (14) not to have sexual relations with one's son's wife; (15) not to have sexual relations with one's brother's wife; (16) not to have sexual relations with one's wife's sister; (17) not have sexual relations with an animal; (18) that a woman shall not bring an animal to have sexual relations with her; (19) not to have sexual relations with another male; (20) not to have sexual relations with one's father; (21) not to have sexual relations with one's father's brother; (22) not to have sexual relations with another man's wife; (23) not to have sexual relations with a menstruous woman; (24) not to intermarry with Gentiles; (25) that an Ammonite or Moabite shall not enter the community by marriage with born Jews; (26) not to keep an Egyptian of the third generation from so entering the community; (27) not to keep an Edomite of the third generation from so entering the community; (28) that a mamzer shall not so enter the community; (29) that a eunuch shall not so enter the community; (30) not to castrate a male, even a domestic animal or wild beast or fowl; (31) that the High Priest shall not marry a widow; (32) that the High Priest shall not have sexual relations with a widow, even without marriage; (33) that the High Priest shall marry a virgin in her adolescence; (34) that a Priest shall not marry a divorced woman; (35) that he shall not marry a harlot; (36) that he shall not marry a profaned woman; (37) that one shall not be intimate with one with which sexual relations are severely forbidden, even without sexual relations. Laws of Forbidden Foods include twenty-eight commandments, four positive commandments and twenty-four negative commandments, which are:  (1) to examine the identifying signs in animals and beasts to tell the unclean from the clean; (2) to examine the identifying signs of fowl to tell the unclean from the clean; (3) to examine the identifying signs of locusts to tell the unclean from the clean; (4) to examine the identifying signs of fishes to tell the unclean from the clean; (5) not to eat unclean animals and beasts; (6) not to eat unclean fowl; (7) not to eat unclean fishes; (8) not to eat winged swarming things; (9) not to eat things that swarm upon the earth; (10) not to eat things that creep upon the earth; (11) not to eat a worm found in fruit after it has emerged onto the ground; (12) not to eat things that swarm in water; (13) not to eat an animal that died without slaughtering; (14) not to benefit from an ox condemned to be stoned; (15) not to eat an animal that is fatally injured; (16) not to eat a limb removed from a living animal; (17) not to eat blood; (18) not to eat suet of a clean animal; (19) not to eat the sciatic nerve; (20) not to eat meat with milk; (21) not to cook it; (22) not to eat bread of the new crop; (23) not to eat roasted grain of the new crop; (24) not to eat fresh grain of the new crop; (25) not to eat fruit of a tree in the first three years from planting; (26) not to eat grains or vegetables sown in a vineyard; (27) not to eat produce from which priestly portions have not yet been removed; (28) not to drink wine of libation to idolatry. Laws of Slaughter include five commandments, three positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to slaughter and then eat; (2) not to slaughter an animal and its young on the same day; (3) to cover the blood of a wild beast or of a fowl; (4) not to take the mother bird with the young; (5) to set the mother bird free, if one has taken her and her young. All the commandments included in this book are thus seventy, eight of them positive commandments and sixty-two negative commandments.   The Book of Promises Its groups of laws are four, and this is their order:  Laws of Oaths, Laws of Vows, Laws of the Nazarite, Laws of Appraisals and Devoted Property Laws of Oaths include five commandments, one positive commandment and four negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to swear by His Name falsely; (2) not to take His Name in vain; (3) not to falsely deny an article left in trust; (4) not to swear falsely in denial of a claim to property; (5) to swear by His Name in truth. Laws of Vows include three commandments, two positive commandments and one negative commandment, which are:  (1) that one shall fulfill whatever he has uttered and do as he has vowed; (2) not to break one's word; (3) that a vow or oath may be annulled, which is the law of annulment of vows explicitly mentioned in the Written Law. Laws of the Nazarite include ten commandments, two positive commandments and eight negative commandments, which are:  (1) that the Nazarite shall let his hair grow long; (2) that he shall not cut his hair all the days of his Nazariteship; (3) that the Nazarite shall not drink wine nor a mixture with wine, not even their vinegar; (4) that he shall not eat fresh grapes; (5) that he shall not eat raisins; (6) that he shall not eat grape seeds; (7) that he shall not eat grape skins; (8) that he shall not enter under any covering where there is a corpse; (9) that he shall not become unclean from a corpse; (10) that he shall shave off his hair when bringing his sacrifices, when he completes his Nazariteship or when he becomes unclean. Laws of Appraisals and Devoted Property include seven commandments, five positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to judge in appraisals of the values of persons as explicitly set forth in the Torah, which is the law of appraisal of persons; (2) the law of the appraisal of animals; (3) the law of the appraisal of houses; (4) the law of the appraisal of fields; (5) the law of one who devotes his property; (6) that what was so devoted shall not be sold; (7) that what was so devoted shall not be redeemed. All the commandments included in this book are thus twenty five, ten of them positive commandments and fifteen negative commandments.   The Book of Seeds Its groups of laws are seven, and this is their order:  Laws of Diverse Varieties, Laws of Gifts to the Poor, Laws of Heave Offerings, Laws of Tithes, Laws of Second Tithe and Fruit of the Fourth Year, Laws of First Fruits and Other Priestly Gifts Outside the Temple, Laws of the Sabbatical Year and the Jubilee Laws of Diverse Varieties include five negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to sow diverse seeds together; (2) not to sow grain or vegetables in a vineyard; (3) not to mate animals of different species; (4) not to work with animals of different species together; (5) not to wear clothing of both wool and linen. Laws of Gifts to the Poor include thirteen commandments, seven positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to leave the edge of the field unharvested; (2) not to wholly reap the edge of the field; (3) to leave fallen stalks; (4) not to gather the fallen stalks; (5) to leave imperfect clusters of the vineyard; (6) not to gather the imperfect clusters of the vineyard; (7) to leave the individual fallen grapes of the vineyard; (8) not to gather the individual fallen grapes of the vineyard; (9) to leave the forgotten sheaf; (10) not to go back to take the forgotten sheaf; (11) to set aside a tithe for the poor; (12) to give charity according to one's ability; (13) not to harden one's heart against the poor. Laws of Heave Offerings include eight commandments, two positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to set aside a great heave offering; (2) to set aside a heave offering of tithes; (3) not to set aside heave offerings and tithes out of order, but to set them aside in the right order; (4) that an unauthorized person shall not eat a heave offering; (5) that even a tenant or hired worker of a Priest shall not eat a heave offering; (6) that the uncircumcised shall not eat a heave offering; (7) that an unclean Priest shall not eat a heave offering; (8) that a profaned woman shall not eat a heave offering nor a gift from consecrated animals. Laws of Tithes include one positive commandment, which is to set apart the first tithe of produce each and every year the fields are sown and give it to the Levites. Laws of Second Tithe and Fruit of the Fourth Year include nine commandments, three positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to set apart a second tithe; (2) not to spend its redemption money for any necessities but eating, drinking, and anointing; (3) not to eat it while unclean; (4) not to eat it while in mourning; (5) not to eat the second tithe of grain outside Jerusalem; (6) not to eat the second tithe of wine outside Jerusalem; (7) not to eat the second tithe of olive oil outside Jerusalem; (8) that all the fruit of trees in the fourth year after planting shall be holy, and that it is to be eaten by its owner in Jerusalem like the second tithe; (9) to make the tithe declaration. Laws of First Fruits and Other Priestly Gifts Outside the Temple include nine commandments, eight positive commandments and one negative commandment, which are:  (1) to set apart first fruits and bring them to the Temple; (2) that the Priest shall not eat the first fruits outside Jerusalem; (3) to recite the declaration on them; (4) to set apart a portion of dough for the Priest; (5) to give the foreleg, the jaw, and the stomach to the Priest; (6) to give him the first fleece; (7) to redeem the first-born son, and to give his redemption gift to the Priest; (8) to redeem the first-born of an ass, and give its redemption gift to the Priest; (9) to decapitate the first-born of an ass, if one does not want to redeem it. Laws of the Sabbatical Year and the Jubilee include twenty-two commandments, nine positive commandments and thirteen negative commandments, which are:  (1) that the land shall rest unworked in the Sabbatical year; (2) that one shall not work the ground in that year; (3) that one shall not work the trees in that year; (4) that one shall not harvest what grows by itself in the manner of harvesters; (5) that one shall not harvest a vineyard in the manner of harvesters; (6) that one shall renounce ownership in what the land produces; (7) that one shall release all his loans; (8) that one shall not oppress nor demand a debt; (9) that one shall not refrain from making loans before the Sabbatical year, so as not to lose his money; (10) to count the years by sevens; (11) to sanctify the fiftieth year; (12) to sound the shofar on the Tenth of Tishri so that slaves go out free; (13) that the land shall not be worked in that year; (14) that one shall not harvest what grows by itself in the manner of harvesters; (15) not to harvest the vineyards in the manner of harvesters; (16) to grant redemption to the land in this year, which is the rule for inherited fields or purchased fields; (17) that the land shall not be sold in perpetuity; (18) the rule for houses in walled cities; (19) that none of the Tribe of Levi shall receive a heritage in the Land of Israel, but cities to dwell in shall be given to them as a gift; (20) that the Tribe of Levi shall not take a share in the spoils of war; (21) to give to the Levites cities to dwell in and open land round about the cities; (22) that the open land round about their cities shall never be sold, but they may redeem it at any time whether before the Jubilee or after the Jubilee. All the commandments included in this book are thus sixty seven, thirty of them positive commandments and thirty-seven negative commandments.   The Book of Service Its groups of laws are nine, and this is their order:  Laws of the Chosen House, Laws of the Vessels of the Temple and Those Who Serve in It, Laws of Entry into the Temple, Laws of Things Forbidden on the Altar, Laws of Sacrificial Procedures, Laws of Perpetual Offerings and Additional Offerings, Laws of Sacrifices Become Unfit, Laws of the Service on Yom Kippur, Laws of Benefit from Consecrated Things Laws of the Chosen House include six commandments, three positive commandments and three negative commandments, which are:  (1) to build a Temple; (2) not to build the Altar of hewn stones; (3) not to go up by steps onto the Altar; (4) to fear the Temple; (5) to keep a guard around the Temple; (6) not to stop guarding the Temple. Laws of the Vessels of the Temple and Those Who Serve in It include fourteen commandments, six positive commandments and eight negative commandments, which are:  (1) to make the anointing oil; (2) not to make the like of it; (3) not to anoint oneself with it; (4) not to make incense in the formula of the incense; (5) not to offer on the Golden Altar anything but the incense; (6) to carry the Ark on the shoulder; (7) that one shall not remove the staves from it; (8) that the Levite shall serve in the Temple; (9) that no one shall do the work assigned to another in the Temple; (10) to sanctify the Priest for the service; (11) that all divisions take part equally on the pilgrimage festivals; (12) to wear priestly clothing for the service; (13) that one shall not rend the Priests' robes; (14) that the breastplate be not loosened from the Ephod. Laws of Entry into the Temple include fifteen commandments, two positive commandments and thirteen negative commandments, which are:  (1) that a drunken Priest shall not enter the Temple; (2) that a Priest whose hair is disheveled shall not enter it; (3) that a Priest whose garment is torn shall not enter it; (4) that a Priest shall not enter the Temple at all times; (5) that a Priest shall not leave the Temple during the service; (6) to send the unclean out of the Temple; (7) that one who is unclean shall not enter the Temple; (8) that one who is unclean shall not enter the Temple Mount; (9) that one who is unclean shall not serve; (10) that who took a purifying ritual bath shall not serve in the Sanctuary before the stars come out on the following evening; (11) that one who serves shall sanctify his hands and feet; (12) that one with a disqualifying blemish shall not enter the Temple nor approach the Altar; (13) that one with a disqualifying blemish shall not serve; (14) that one with a temporary disqualifying blemish shall not serve; (15) that a non-priest shall not serve. Laws of Things Forbidden on the Altar include fourteen commandments, four positive commandments and ten negative commandments, which are:  (1) to sacrifice only unblemished animals; (2) not to set apart a blemished animal for the Altar; (3) not to slaughter one; (4) not to sprinkle its blood; (5) not to burn its suet; (6) not to sacrifice one with a temporary blemish; (7) not to sacrifice one with a blemish, even in sacrifices of Gentiles; (8) not to inflict a blemish in consecrated animals; (9) to redeem consecrated animals that have become unfit; (10) to sacrifice only from eight days old and onward, for before then it is called underage and is not to be sacrificed; (11) not to sacrifice animals taken in exchange for services of a prostitute or in exchange for a dog; (12) not to burn on the Altar leaven or honey; (13) to salt all sacrifices; (14) not to omit salting of sacrifices. Laws of Sacrificial Procedures include twenty-three commandments, ten positive commandments and thirteen negative commandments, which are:  (1) to do the burnt offering according to the procedures in its prescribed order; (2) not to eat the flesh of the burnt offering; (3) the order of the sin offering; (4) not to eat the flesh of a sin offering brought inside; (5) not to sever the head off a sin offering of fowl; (6) the order of the guilt offering; (7) that the Priests shall eat the flesh of the most holy sacrifices within the Temple; (8) that they shall not eat them outside the Courtyard; (9) that a non-priest shall not eat of the most holy sacrifices; (10) the order of the peace offerings; (11) not to eat the flesh of the minor holy sacrifices before the sprinkling of their blood; (12) to do each of the meal offerings according to the order of its procedures prescribed in the Torah; (13) that one not put oil on the meal offering of a sinner; (14) that one not put frankincense upon it; (15) that a Priest's meal offering shall not be eaten; (16) that a meal offering shall not be baked leavened; (17) that the Priests shall eat the remainders of meal offerings; (18) that one shall bring all his vowed offerings and his free-will offerings on the first pilgrimage festival that comes; (19) that one shall not delay vowed offerings or free-will offerings or other things one is obligated to do; (20) to offer all sacrifices in the Chosen House; (21) to bring things consecrated outside Israel to the Chosen House; (22) not to slaughter sacrifices outside the Courtyard; (23) not to offer a sacrifice outside the Courtyard. Laws of Perpetual Offerings and Additional Offerings include nineteen commandments, eighteen positive commandments and one negative commandment, which are:  (1) to sacrifice daily two lambs as burnt offerings; (2) to light a fire upon the Altar daily; (3) not to extinguish it; (4) to remove the ashes daily; (5) to burn incense daily; (6) to light lamps daily; (7) that the High Priest shall bring a meal offering daily, which is called Chavittin; (8) to add on the Sabbath two lambs as burnt offerings; (9) to make the showbread; (10) the additional offering of New Moons; (11) the additional offering of Pesach; (12) to offer the Omer as a wave offering; (13) that each and every man shall count seven weeks from the day the Omer is offered; (14) the additional offering of Shavu`ot; (15) to bring the two loaves of bread with the sacrifices brought because of them on Shavu`ot; (16) the additional offering of Rosh Hashanah; (17) the additional offering of the Day of the Fast; (18) the additional offering of the Festival of Sukkot; (19) the additional offering of the Festival of Shemini `Atzeret. Laws of Sacrifices Become Unfit include eight commandments, two positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to eat consecrated animals that have become unfit or have been blemished; (2) not to eat the abomination of intended delay; (3) that one shall not leave consecrated animals until after their time; (4) that one shall not eat what is left over beyond its time; (5) that one shall not eat sacrifices that have become unclean; (6) that one who has become unclean shall not eat sacrifices; (7) to burn what is left over beyond its time; (8) to burn what has become unclean. Laws of the Service on Yom Kippur are one positive commandment, which is to do the service of the whole Day of Atonement in the order written in Leviticus 16--the sacrifices, the confessions, the sending of the scapegoat, and the rest of the service. Laws of Benefit from Consecrated Things include three commandments, one positive commandment and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) for one has benefitted from consecrated things to pay what he has benefitted with the addition of a fifth and bring an offering, which is the rule for one who benefits from consecrated things; (2) not to work with consecrated animals; (3) not to shear the fleece of consecrated animals. All the commandments included in this book are thus one hundred three, forty seven of them positive commandments and fifty-six negative commandments.   The Book of Sacrifices Its groups of laws are six, and this is their order:  Laws of the Pesach Sacrifice, Laws of Pilgrimage Festival Sacrifice, Laws of the First-Born, Laws of Unintentional Sins, Laws of Those with Incomplete Atonement, Laws of Substitution for Consecrated Animals Laws of the Pesach Sacrifice include sixteen commandments, four positive commandments and twelve negative commandments, which are:  (1) to slaughter the Pesach sacrifice at its appointed time; (2) not to slaughter it while in possession of leaven; (3) not to let the parts to be burned on the Altar be left overnight; (4) to slaughter the Second Pesach sacrifice; (5) to eat the flesh of the Pesach sacrifice with unleavened bread and bitter herbs on the night of the Fifteenth of Nisan; (6) to eat the flesh of the Second Pesach sacrifice with unleavened bread and bitter herbs on the night of the Fifteenth of the second month; (7) not to eat it raw or boiled; (8) not to take flesh of the Pesach sacrifice outside the place of the group appointed to eat it; (9) that an apostate shall not eat it; (10) that an alien tenant or hired worker shall not eat it; (11) that an uncircumcised shall not eat it; (12) that one shall not break a bone of it; (13) that one shall not break a bone of the Second Pesach sacrifice; (14) that one shall not leave over any of it until morning; (15) that one shall not leave over any of the Second Pesach sacrifice until morning; (16) that one shall not leave over any of the flesh of the pilgrimage festival sacrifice brought on the Fourteenth of Nisan until the third day. Laws of Pilgrimage Festival Sacrifice include six commandments, four positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to appear before the LORD; (2) to celebrate the three pilgrimage festivals; (3) to rejoice on the pilgrimage festivals; (4) not to appear empty-handed; (5) not to neglect to make the Levite rejoice and to give him gifts on the pilgrimage festivals; (6) to assemble the people on the Festival of Sukkot after the end of the Sabbatical year. Laws of the First-Born include five commandments, two positive commandments and three negative commandments, which are:  (1) to set apart the first-born; (2) not to eat an unblemished first-born outside Jerusalem; (3) not to redeem the first-born; (4) to set apart a tithe of animals; (5) not to redeem the tithe of animals.  I have included the tithe of animals with the first-born because the procedure is the same in both, and the Written Torah includes the one with the other, as it is written "and dash their blood" (see Numbers 18,17), which according to the oral tradition is both the blood of the tithe of animals and the blood of the first-born. Laws of Unintentional Sins include five positive commandments, which are:  (1) that an individual shall bring a fixed sin offering for his error; (2) that one who does not know whether he sinned or not shall bring a guilt offering until he knows for certain and brings his sin offering, and this is called the conditional guilt offering; (3) that the sinner in specific sins brings a guilt offering, and this is called an unconditional guilt offering; (4) that the sinner in specific sins brings, if wealthy an animal and if poor a fowl or a tenth of an ephah of meal, and this is called the offering according to means; (5) that the Sanhedrin shall bring an offering, if they have erred and instructed not according to the Law in one of certain grave matters. Laws of Those with Incomplete Atonement include four positive commandments, which are:  (1) that a woman with an unclean issue shall bring an offering, when she becomes clean; (2) that a woman after childbirth shall bring an offering, when she becomes clean; (3) that a man with an unclean issue shall bring an offering, when he becomes clean; (4) that a leper shall bring an offering, when he becomes clean.  After they have brought their offerings, their purification is complete. Laws of Substitution for Consecrated Animals include three commandments, one positive commandment and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to substitute for consecrated animals; (2) that the substituted animal shall become consecrated, if a substitution was made; (3) not to change consecrated animals from one category of holiness to another. All the commandments included in this book are thus thirty nine, twenty of them positive commandments and nineteen negative commandments.   The Book of Ritual Purity Its groups of laws are eight, and this is their order:  Laws of Uncleanness from a Corpse, Laws of the Red Heifer, Laws of Uncleanness from Leprosy, Laws of Uncleanness of a Bed or Seat, Laws of Other Sources of Uncleanness, Laws of Uncleanness of Foods, Laws of Vessels, Laws of Ritual Baths Laws of Uncleanness from a Corpse include one positive commandment, which is the rule for uncleanness from a corpse. Laws of the Red Heifer include two positive commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for the red heifer; (2) the rule for uncleanness of the water of sprinkling and of its purification. Laws of Uncleanness from Leprosy include eight commandments, six positive commandments and two negative commandments, which are:  (1) to give judgments on leprosy in persons according to the rules written in the Torah; (2) not to cut off the identifying signs of uncleanness; (3) not to shave the scall; (4) that the leper shall be recognizable by wearing torn garments, letting the hair go unkempt, and covering the head down to the lips; (5) the cleansing of leprosy; (6) that the leper shall shave all his hair when he becomes clean; (7) the rule for leprosy of a garment; (8) the rule for leprosy of a house. Laws of Uncleanness of a Bed or Seat include four positive commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for uncleanness from a menstruous woman; (2) the rule for uncleanness from a woman after childbirth; (3) the rule for uncleanness from a woman with an unclean issue; (4) the rule for uncleanness from a man with an unclean issue. Laws of Other Sources of Uncleanness include three positive commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for uncleanness from an animal that died without slaughtering; (2) the rule for uncleanness from the eight creeping things; (3) the rule for uncleanness from semen.  And an idol defiles like a creeping thing, and its uncleanness is rabbinical. Laws of Uncleanness of Foods are one positive commandment, which is the rule for uncleanness of liquids and foods, and the conditions that cause foods to be susceptible to becoming unclean. Laws of Vessels are on the subject of knowing which vessels contract uncleanness of any of the sorts given above, and which vessels do not contract them, and how vessels become unclean and cause uncleanness. Laws of Ritual Baths include one positive commandment, which is that whoever is unclean shall immerse himself in a ritual bath and then he will become clean. All the commandments included in this book are thus twenty, eighteen of them positive commandments and two negative commandments.   The Book of Injuries Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of Injury to Property, Laws of Theft, Laws of Robbery and Lost Property, Laws of One Who Injures Person or Property, Laws of a Murderer and the Preservation of Life Laws of Injury to Property include four positive commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for the goring ox; (2) the rule for the grazing animal; (3) the rule for the uncovered pit; (4) the rule for the spreading fire. Laws of Theft include seven commandments, two positive commandments and five negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to steal property; (2) the rule for the thief; (3) to maintain just scales and weights; (4) not to do injustice in measures and weights; (5) not to have in one's possession diverse weights and measures, even if they are not used in buying and selling; (6) not to move a landmark; (7) not to steal persons. Laws of Robbery and Lost Property include seven commandments, two positive commandments and five negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to rob; (2) not to exploit; (3) not to covet; (4) not to desire what belongs to another; (5) to return what has been robbed; (6) not to ignore lost property; (7) to return lost property. Laws of One Who Injures Person or Property include one positive commandment, which is the rule for one who injures another or damages another's property. Laws of a Murderer and the Preservation of Life include seventeen commandments, seven positive commandments and ten negative commandments, which are:  (1) not to murder; (2) not to take ransom from a murderer, but rather to execute him; (3) to exile one who killed another accidentally; (4) not to take ransom from one who is liable for exile; (5) that a murderer shall not be executed when he has committed murder, before he has been tried; (6) to save the pursued at the cost of the life of the pursuer; (7) not to show pity for the pursuer; (8) not to stand by idly when life is in danger; (9) to set apart cities of refuge and prepare the way to them; (10) to decapitate the heifer in a riverbed; (11) not to till its ground nor sow it; (12) not to endanger human life; (13) to make a parapet; (14) that one not cause the innocent to err; (15) to help a person unload the burden when fallen on the way; (16) to help him to load it again; (17) not to leave him alarmed and go on one's way. All the commandments included in this book are thus thirty six, sixteen of them positive commandments and twenty negative commandments.   The Book of Acquisition Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of Sales, Laws of Acquisition of Ownerless Property and Gifts, Laws of Neighbors, Laws of Agents and Partners, Laws of Slaves Laws of Sales include five commandments, one positive commandment and four negative commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for purchase and sale; (2) not to wrong others in buying and selling; (3) not to wrong others in speech; (4) not to wrong a righteous convert in his possessions; (5) not to wrong him in speech. Laws of Acquisition of Ownerless Property and Gifts are on the subject of knowing the rule for one who acquires ownerless property and how and by what means he acquires it, and the rule for one who gives a gift and its recipient and which gift returns to its giver and which does not return. Laws of Neighbors are on the subject of knowing the rule for partition of land between partners, the avoidance of damage by each of them to his neighbor or to the owner of adjoining property, and the rule for the owner of adjoining property. Laws of Agents and Partners are on the subject of knowing the rule for a person's agent or his partner, and the laws on their purchases and sales and losses and profits. Laws of Slaves include thirteen commandments, five positive commandments and eight negative commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for the acquisition of a Hebrew bondman; (2) that he shall not be sold as a slave is sold; (3) that he shall not be subjugated to do strenuous work; (4) that we shall not allow a resident alien to subjugate him to strenuous work; (5) that we shall not force him to do the work of a slave; (6) to give him a gift when he goes free; (7) that he shall not go out empty-handed; (8) to redeem a Hebrew bondmaid; (9) to espouse her; (10) that she shall not be sold; (11) to use a Canaanite slave forever, except if his master injured one of certain parts of his body; (12) not to return a slave who fled from outside the Land of Israel to the Land of Israel; (13) not to wrong such a slave who escaped to us. All the commandments included in this book are thus eighteen, six of them positive commandments and twelve negative commandments.   The Book of Judgments Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of Hiring, Laws of Borrowed and Deposited Things, Laws of Creditor and Debtor, Laws of Claimant and Respondent, Laws of Inheritances Laws of Hiring include seven commandments, three positive commandments and four negative commandments, which are:  (1) the rule for a hired worker and a paid depositary; (2) to pay a hired worker's wage on time; (3) not to delay the payment of a hired worker's wage after it is due; (4) that the hired worker may eat of the unharvested produce in which he is working; (5) that he may not eat the unharvested produce other than when he does the finishing work on it; (6) that the hired worker shall not take anything away other than what he has eaten; (7) that one shall not muzzle an ox in his treading, and this applies to other animals. Laws of Borrowed and Deposited Things include two positive commandments:  (1) the rule for the borrower; (2) the rule for an unpaid depositary. Laws of Creditor and Debtor include twelve commandments, four positive commandments and eight negative commandments, which are:  (1) to lend to the poor and needy; (2) not to press him; (3) to press the Gentile; (4) that one shall not take a pledge by force; (5) to return the pledge to its owner, when he needs it; (6) not to delay return of the pledge to its poor owner, when he needs it; (7) not to exact a pledge from a widow; (8) not to take in pledge utensils used in preparing food; (9) that the lender shall not loan at interest; (10) that the borrower shall not borrow at interest; (11) that a person shall not provide services between lender and borrower in a loan at interest, neither to serve as witness between them, nor to write the loan document, nor to act as a guarantor; (12) to borrow from the Gentile and loan him at interest. Laws of Claimant and Respondent are one positive commandment, which is the rule for one who makes a claim and one who admits or denies. Laws of Inheritances are one positive commandment, which is the rule for the order of inheritances. All the commandments included in this book are thus twenty three, eleven of them positive commandments and twelve negative commandments.   The Book of Judges Its groups of laws are five, and this is their order:  Laws of the Sanhedrin and the Penalties Under Their Jurisdiction, Laws of Testimony, Laws of Rebels, Laws of Mourning, Laws of Kings and Wars Laws of the Sanhedrin and the Penalties Under Their Jurisdiction include thirty commandments, ten positive commandments and twenty negative commandments, which are:  (1) to appoint judges; (2) not to appoint a judge who does not know the way of judgment; (3) to follow the majority, when the judges differ in opinion; (4) not to execute the accused if there is only a bare majority for conviction, but rather when there is at least a majority of two; (5) that one who has argued for acquittal shall not later argue for conviction in capital cases; (6) to execute by stoning; (7) to execute by burning; (8) to execute by decapitation with a sword; (9) to execute by strangling; (10) to hang; (11) to bury the executed on the day of his execution; (12) not to leave his corpse hanging overnight; (13) not to allow a sorcerer to live; (14) to whip the wicked; (15) not to exceed the maximum number of whippings; (16) not to execute the innocent on circumstantial evidence; (17) not to punish one who committed an offence under duress; (18) not to show pity for one who kills another person or injures him; (19) not to show compassion to a poor person in a trial; (20) not to show respect to an important person in a trial; (21) not to decide against a habitual transgressor, even though he is a sinner; (22) not to do injustice in a judgment; (23) not to pervert the judgment of a convert or orphan; (24) to judge righteously; (25) not to fear when judging a violent person; (26) not to take a bribe; (27) not to receive a baseless report; (28) not to curse judges; (29) not to curse the King or head of Sanhedrin; (30) not to curse any other worthy Israelite. Laws of Testimony include eight commandments, three positive commandments and five negative commandments, which are:  (1) for one who knows evidence to testify in court; (2) to examine and thoroughly check the witnesses; (3) that a witness shall not give instruction in a case in which he has testified, in capital cases; (4) that nothing shall be decided on testimony of a single witness; (5) that a habitual transgressor shall not testify; (6) that a relative shall not testify; (7) not to testify falsely; (8) to do to a false witness as he had plotted to do to the accused. Laws of Rebels include nine commandments, three positive commandments and six negative commandments, which are:  (1) to act according to the Torah as the Great Rabbinical Court declares it; (2) not to deviate from their words; (3) not to add to the Torah either in the commandments of the Written Law or in the interpretation that we have learned from tradition; (4) not to take away from either of them; (5) not to curse one's father or mother; (6) not to strike one's father or mother; (7) to honor one's father and mother; (8) to fear one's father and mother; (9) that a son shall not be stubborn and rebellious against the voice of his father and mother. Laws of Mourning include four commandments, one positive commandment and three negative commandments, which are:  (1) to mourn for deceased relatives, and even a Priest must become unclean and mourn for his relatives; but one does not mourn for those who have been executed by a court, and for this reason I have included these laws in this book, because they are similar to the duty of burying the executed on the day of death, which is a positive commandment; (2) that a High Priest shall not become unclean for deceased relatives; (3) that he shall not enter under a covering where a corpse is; (4) that an ordinary Priest shall not become unclean from the corpse of any person aside from his relatives. Laws of Kings and Wars include twenty-three commandments, ten positive commandments and thirteen negative commandments, which are:  (1) to appoint a king from among born Israelites; (2) not to appoint him from the community of converts; (3) that he shall not have many wives; (4) that he shall not have many horses; (5) that he shall not have much gold and silver; (6) to exterminate the seven Canaanite peoples; (7) not to let a single one of them live; (8) to wipe out the offspring of Amalek; (9) to remember what Amalek did; (10) not to forget his evil deeds and his ambush on the way; (11) not to dwell in the Land of Egypt; (12) to offer peace to the inhabitants of a city when besieging it, and to deal with it in the way set out in the Torah, according as it makes peace or does not; (13) not to seek peace with Ammon and Moab alone, when besieging them; (14) not to destroy fruit trees in a siege; (15) to prepare a latrine so that members of the camp shall go out there to excrete; (16) to prepare a stake to dig with; (17) to anoint a Priest to speak to the men of the army in time of war; (18) for a man who has espoused a wife, built a house, or planted a vineyard to rejoice in their new acquisitions a full year, and they are sent back home from the war; (19) that they shall not be pressed into any service, and not even to go out for the needs of the city, the needs of the troops, nor the like; (20) not to be frightened nor retreat in time of war; (21) the rule for a beautiful woman taken captive in war; (22) that she is not to be sold; (23) that one shall not enslave her after having sexual relations with her. All the commandments included in this book are thus seventy four, twenty seven of them positive commandments and forty-seven negative commandments. And thus all the groups of laws in these fourteen books are eighty-three groups. Prev | Table of Contents | Next Got a question or comment?  Write Us!